Zambia

GEOGRAPHICAL INFO

Population: 17,609,000 (UNSD, 2018) 

Capital city: Lusaka

Largest cities: Kitwe, Ndola

Independence from UK: 1964

Government structure: Presidential republic, the president being both head of state and chief of government (5-year term, re-eligible). Actual president: Edgar Lungu (since 2015). The Parliament is a unicameral National Assembly with 165 seats, (156 directly elected, the others appointed by the president). The juridical branch consists of a Supreme and a Constitutional Court, whose judges are appointed by the president.

Economic activities: Zambia’s economy depends mostly on the mining sector (copper and emerald); as far as agriculture is concerned, the main products are rice, peanuts, sunflower seeds, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane and coffee.  

Transports: Zambian road network is largely unpaved and lacking maintenance; the main railroad system is owned jointly by the Zambian and the Tanzanian governments, running from Dar-Es Salaam to Kapiri Mposhi and was used for the transportation of copper. Another important line goes from the border with Zimbabwe to that with the DRC. Both railroad networks require improvement. Water transportation can be made using the Lake Tanganyika or the Zambesi and Luapula rivers.

Environmental issues: HIV/AIDS epidemic (the prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS for adults aged 15-49 was around 13 per cent in 2013/14)

Ethnic groups: Bemba 21%, Tonga 13.6%, Chewa 7.4%, Lozi 5.7%, Nsenga 5.3%, Tumbuka 4.4%, Ngoni 4%, Lala 3.1%, Kaonde 2.9%, Namwanga 2.8%, Lunda (north Western) 2.6%, Mambwe 2.5%, Luvale 2.2%, Lamba 2.1%, Ushi 1.9%, Lenje 1.6%, Bisa 1.6%, Mbunda 1.2%

Official languages: English

Recognized regional languages: there are over 70 languages and dialects, including Bemba 33.4%, Nyanja 14.7%, Tonga 11.4%

Religions: Christian (75%), Muslim (5%), indigenous beliefs

Neighboring countries: Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe

Historical Background

Zambia was an appealing country to migrants until the copper prices fell in the ‘70s, causing a severe economic crisis, with many Europeans leaving. The civil strife in neighbouring countries such as Angola and Mozambique and the support to the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa make Zambia a destination for refugees. 

The migrant population (both internal and international) have settled mainly in urban areas and alongside the Copperbelt railroad through Kapiri Mposhi, Lusaka, Choma and Livingstone. In recent years, immigrants from Asia (especially China and India) have had a huge impact on the national economy, as they control much of the manufacturing sector; moreover, the government has invited white farmers dispossessed by Zimbabwean authorities to settle down in the country and revive the agricultural sector. 

As Mohammad Amin and Aaditya Mattoo highlight in their research “Migration from Zambia:  Ensuring Temporariness Through Cooperation” (World Bank, 2015), “(t)he total stock of Zambians living in the OECD countries is estimated at 27 per 10,000 of Zambia’s population, an emigration rate far below that of many other African countries, such as Kenya (56) and Zimbabwe (47)”; that means that the country is more one of transit and destination rather than one of departure. Moreover, the authors focus on the problem of brain drain, as those leaving the country are educated and skilled migrants.  

Migration Policies

The Immigration and Deportation Act of 2010 (replacing the Immigration and Deportation Act, promulgated in 1965) regulates all migration matters, such as provisions for persons entering and leaving Zambia, immigration and residence permits and visas, border controls, and prohibition of human trafficking.  

Governmental Institutions

The Department of Immigration facilitates all migratory movements in and out of Zambia in order to contribute to national security and sustainable socio-economic advancement. The main headquarters are in Lusaka while each of the ten provinces have regional offices.

Office of the Commissioner for Refugees, under the Ministry of Home Affairs, is responsible for refugees’ affairs in the country.

Internal Migration

According to the Census of 2010 (National Analytical Report, Central Statistical Office, 2012), the major destinations for internal migration were the Lusaka Province followed by the Copperbelt Province. In 2010, the total number of internal migrants to Lusaka was 740,000 people, while to the Copperbelt Province was 340,000. Most internal migrants were from the Northern Province.

Lusaka and the Central Provinces were the only areas with rates for in-migration greater than rates for out-migration. For example, in Lusaka, in-migration accounted for 38.2%, three times more than the rates for out-migration (11.6%). The rates for out-migration were highest in the Copperbelt Province (22.4%) and in the Northern Province (14.5%).

Many migrants moved from urban to urban areas (38.7%) and from rural to urban areas (30%) meaning that more than two thirds of migrants were migrating to urban areas.

Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)

If the label “Internally Displaced Persons” is limited to those people forced to move from one part of the country to another because of conflict, war or natural disaster, then Zambia presents some comforting statistics, if compared to other states: according to IDCM, only 21 people were displaced because of natural events. The political stability and the absence of conflicts and civil war would suggest that the issue of IDPs is minimal and limited to extraordinary catastrophes such as thunderstorms and floods. 

But, as highlighted in The New Humanitarian report of February 2018 (“Zambia: A new kind of internally displaced people”), forced internal displacement is not caused by disasters or wars only. In the case of Zambia, IDPs are not victims of conflict, but rather of development projects that have dispossessed over 88,000 people since 2009. That year, 54,000 people were recorded as internally displaced, while in 2013 the number dropped to 5,500 to increase again the following year (26,000). In 2017, there were 2,800 IDPs in the country (all data from IDMC, 2018). Displaced people are usually little farmers, living in rural areas, evicted by the government and relocated in far-off places, where they hardly have any facilities. The land is then given to buyers and investors for so-called development projects, such as soyabean and wheat crops or mining. 

Little or no compensation is given to the evicted, who see their conditions seriously impoverished. 

Immigration

From the data provided by UN DESA (2019), immigration in Zambia has been decreasing since 1990 (279,000, or 3.5% of International Migration Stock), with the only exception in 2000, when the migrant population rampantly went up to 343,700 people (3.3% of International Migrant Stock), mainly due to the Angolan refugees fleeing from the civil war. In 2005, numbers dropped to 252,900 and kept falling in 2010 (150,000), when the UNCHR offered to repatriate refugees from Angola. In 2015 immigrants were 132,100, corresponding to a net migration rate of -0.7 and an international migration stock of 0.8% and were employed especially in the agricultural and fishery sector, but also as salespersons in shops.

According to UNICEF, up to 2013, the major sending countries to Zambia were Angola (44,339), DRC (22,670), Rwanda (5,484), Zimbabwe (5,149) and Malawi (3,940), data confirmed in 2019 by UN DESA, with  Zimbabwe surpassing Rwanda as the third major country of origin.   

Female/Gender Migration

Few data are known about gender migration: according to the Census 2010 women comprised 46.9% of the international migrant stock, while in 2017, this increased to 49.5% (77,700 women) (UNDESA, 2017). Overall, the percentage of female migrants is higher when considering internal migration and, reversely, emigrants are mostly male. If little is known about immigrant women’s impact on Zambian economy, the 2010 Census offers a clearer view of the main occupations in which female internal migrants are employed: 33.8% in skilled forestry, 22.9% in services and sales workers and 14.5% elementary occupations. 

The forced internal migration following the government’s eviction of small farmers or dispossession o their land has deeply affected women, who were involved in the agricultural sector. 

Children

In 2017, children under 18 years of age were the 18% of the international migrant population (UNDESA, 2017), while migrant children were only 2%. If read with the figures on female migration, the latter data suggest that Zambian men emigrate leaving their families (wives and children) behind. 

On the other hand, children in Zambia, be they migrant or not, are exposed to exploitation as revealed in a report published by the US Department of Labour in 2018 (2017 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor – Zambia): statistics show that 28.1% of children between 5 and 14 work, and 27.6% combine school and work. Over 90% of working children are employed in the agricultural sector, 7% in domestic work and street work (including begging) and 1.2% are used in the mining industry. Especially along the border, children are also trafficked and sexually exploited. 

Even if the Government has tried to implement exiting legislation against child labor and exploitation, the situation remains dramatic. Moreover, the lack of education facilities (schools are few and often too far away) and the costs families have to pay even for fees and school supplies discourage students to complete their education.

With the 2017 Refugee Act the government ensures assistance and protection to any unaccompanied child, along with assistance to retrace his/her parents and for the reunification with his/her family. When this is not possible, the child is accorded the same protection as any other minor deprived of his/her family. No data have been collected about the efficacy and application of the law so far.

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

from Zambia

The number of Zambians seeking asylum or recognised as refugees is irrelevant (respectively 158 and 250), as it corresponds to 0 % (UNHCR, 2017). 

in Zambia

In 2010, refugees and asylum seekers made up 29.4% of immigrants to Zambia. At the end of 2012, estimated the number of refugees was estimated to be 20,834 (UNICEF, 2013), with the DRC and Rwanda as the main sending countries.  According to UNHCR (2019), in 2017 the refugees in the country were 41,193 and the asylum seekers 4,677, with DRC, Burundi and Somalia as the major countries of origin. In the same year, 17,572 Angolans were recorded as “others of concern”, meaning UNHCR provided them the same assistance as refugees or asylum seekers. As for 2018, the figures slightly increased, with 49,734 refugees but less asylum seekers (3,291), while 17,866 Angolans and 4,976 Rwandans were considered as other people of concern. 

The major refugee settlements are Meheba in the North Western province and Mayukwayukwa in the Western province. With regard to employment, refugees are treated like other foreigners seeking paid or self-employment who, according to the immigration law, are required to apply for a work permit, with a supporting letter from the Office of the Commissioner for Refugees. If a refugee wishes to pursue self-employment as investors in the private sector, they are required demonstrate proof of investment up to US$ 250,000 if they want to start a new company, and up to US$ 150,000 if they are joining an existing company in Zambia.

No data are available for the percentage of women and children among refugees and asylum seekers.

Emigration

Emigration in Zambia started in the ‘70s, when the oil crisis and the collapse of copper prices seriously affected the national economy, urging Zambians to look for opportunities abroad. In the ‘80s emigration continued, involving especially professionals of the healthcare and education sectors. The privatisation of parastatals and the liberalisation plans followed in the ‘90s by the government led to another wave of emigration, which continued between 2000 and 2005, when Zambia tried to reach the Initiative Completion Point for Highly Indebted Poor Countries by means of a wage and employment freeze. The latter further increased the number of Zambian skilled emigrants, forced to leave in order to find jobs matching their qualifications. In addition, many students who went to study abroad on Government or other scholarship programmes decided not to return to their home country (Diaspora Policy Document, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019).

 According to UN DESA, in 1990, Zambians leaving the country were 85,200 and in 2000 160,200. The figures have been constantly increasing since then (181,000 in 2005 and 208,300 in 2010), until 2015, when 425,800 emigrants were accounted for (all data are taken from UN DESA, 2019). The Zambia Diaspora Survey of 2015 highlighted that 38% of Zambian migrants lived in South Africa, 21% in the USA and 15% in the UK. 

Even if there is no law prohibiting emigration as such, the government is trying to introduce some measures to prevent the hemorrhage of skilled workers, especially in the health care sector.

Labour Migration/Brain Drain

As already highlighted in the Country Strategy Paper and National Indicative Programme 2008-2013, Zambia has a very serious brain drain, especially in the health sector: doctors and nurses leave because of bad working conditions and few possibilities to advance in their career. Between 1999 and 2002, the number of doctors was cut by 43.5% (from 1,283 to 559), and the shortage of medical staff has worsened to the point that according to latest data in the paper, there was one doctor every 19,000 inhabitants. Even if the number of skilled emigrants is relatively low if compared to other African countries (in 2015, only 28.5% of the school population had completed secondary education, UNESCO, 2019), the brain drain issue is relevant as Zambia’s human capital is limited and underdeveloped. Some return programs have been provided by the government but with little success. 

Unauthorised Migration/Trafficking, Smuggling

Zambia is a country of origin, destination and transit for human trafficking, sharing borders with eight countries and having some spurious points difficult to monitor). People trafficked to Zambia come from Mozambique and Malawi, but, recenty, also from South Asia; as a transit country, Zambia is used for human trafficking from the Great Lakes to South Africa, while trafficked Zambians are sent to South Africa, Congo and Namibia. But there is also an internal human traffic, from rural to urban areas, which is increasing. Usually traffickers use community or family members to convince people to follow them with the promise of scholaships or jobe opportunities: men are used especially in the agricultural and mining sector, women and children (who are the 58.5% and the 60.6%  of the victims exploited in Zambia, respectively) are employed in domestic work or sexually exploited. 

Even if the government is trying to fight human trafficking by implementing laws and controls and training police officers, it is still very difficult to discover, detain and prosecute traffickers, who continue their illegal activity. Cooperation with and involvement of NGOs and international organisations such as IOM in the assistance and protection of traffic victims are not sufficient, unfortunately, as the country lacks proper infrastructures and resources. (a full report can be read at http://www.warmongersinc.net/files/subject-zambia-annual-human-trafficking-report/)

Remittances

The figures in remittances received by Zambia present a significant fluctuation since 2003. According to the data provided by the World Bank, in that year US $ 36.3 million were paid in remittances; in 2008, the amount was of US$ 68.2 million, whereas the following years saw a decline (in 2009, US$ 41.3) that reached its lowest point in 2016, with US$ 38.5 million. But the following year remittances multiplied exponentially to US$ 93 million and grew up to US$ 100.9 million in 2018 (which corresponded to 0.4% of the GDP). The numbers record money received through formal channels, such as banks, which leads to think that remittances are higher and often paid through informal ways, using public transporters (bus drivers, for instance) to send money home. Privileging this way over the official (and vice versa) might also explain the sudden rise and fall of numbers.

The Diaspora Policy Document (2019), acknowledging the potential remittances can have in development projects, has set the goal to facilitate their flow through official channels by reducing transfer costs.  

Returnees

From 1983 to 1999, the government ran a program for the return and integration of skilled Zambians who had emigrated: travel arrangements were facilitated and jobs in the public sector were offered to those willing to return. In 2005, the National Employment and Labour Market Policy aimed at implementing return programs for professionals, while the Bonding System required students who had benefited from public scholarships to work for the Government for a period equivalent to their studies. 

The emigration of qualified workers in the health care and education sector is affecting more and more the country, which does not invest in educational infrastructures and therefore cannot easily and promptly fill the occupational gaps left by teachers, doctors and nurses. The Government is trying to react by offering the Zambian diaspora the opportunity to return (even temporarily), buy land, participate in businesses, or invest in development projects. At the present moment, however, no data on returnees are available.

The Diaspora Policy Document (2019) emphasizes the need to promote permanent or temporary returns to Zambia and to build a cooperation network between Zambian professionals abroad and the country, so as to exchange skills transfer. For this reason, the government is going to establish a database of available skills in the Diaspora, matching them to local needs and available opportunities. 

International and Civil Society Organizations

UNHCR in Zambia supports the government’s efforts to provide protection and assistance to refugees and asylum-seekers. These include safe and fair access to territory, asylum procedures and rights, inclusion in national services, self-reliance and opportunities to earn a living, and long-term measures such as integration into the host country and possible resettlement in third countries.

IOM: Zambia became a Member State of IOM in 1990 however IOM started its operations in Zambia in 1992. IOM Zambia’s programs focus on:

• Labour migration and development

• Diaspora engagement

• Counter human trafficking and migrant smuggling

• Border management

• Migration research

• International migration law and migrants’ rights

• Migration health and gender

• Disaster risk reduction

• Voluntary repatriation and resettlement of refugees

Women Refugees Community in Zambian (WRCZ) focuses on empowering women and combating discrimination against refugee women in Zambia.

(Long list of NGOs in Zambia here http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/sectors-zambia/civil_society/national_ngos_civil_society/ )

References

Census: file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/2010%20Census%20Migration%20and%20Urbanization%20Report.pdf

Refugees: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a8c134.html

Refugee Act: http://www.parliament.gov.zm/sites/default/files/documents/acts/The%20Refugees%20Act%20No.%201%20of%202017.pdf

Diaspora Policy Document: https://www.mofa.gov.zm/?wpfb_dl=48