Zimbabwe

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 Geographical Information

Population: 15,092,171

Capital City: Harare

Independence from UK from the 18 April 1980

Government type: Presidential republic

Main Party/Dominant Party: Zimbabwe African National-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF)

President: Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa (since 2017)

Economic activities: The economy of Zimbabwe heavily rely on the tertiary industry, with agriculture and mining contributing largely for its export.  

Transport: Dilapidated transport infrastructure network

Climatic/environmental issues: Two seasons; rainy season runs from November to March and dry season from April to September. Environmental issues include air and water pollution, natural hazards (droughts), and deforestation  

Ethnic groups: African 99.4, 0.4 other, and unspecified 0.2%

Official languages: There are 3 official languages in Zimbabwe which include English (traditionally used for official business), Shona (most widely spoken) and Ndebele (second most widely spoken)

Religions: Protestant 74.8%, Roman Catholic 7.3%, other Christian 5.3%, traditional 1.5%, Muslim 0.5%, other, 0.1%, none 10.5%

Social issues: High levels of unemployment and poverty, HIV/AIDS, food insecurity, rapid population growth and migration on a massive scale

Neighbouring countries: Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana, South Africa, and Namibia

 Historical Background

Zimbabwe, once considered one of the breadbasket nations in Africa, feeding her population and assisting neighbouring countries, is now a food aid receiving country (UNHCR, 2019). Zimbabwe was considered a destination country during the colonial era as it attracted migrants from the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe who desired to settle permanently and established farms, plantations, and mines which later on became a source of employment attracting migrants within the Southern African Region - who were recruited temporarily to work in the mines, commercial farms, and domestic services (Zinyama, 1990). Before the aforementioned nature of migration, Zimbabwe was host to migrants fleeing the Mfecane/Difaqane persecution in South Africa in the 19th century (Mlambo, 2010). 

Two waves of out-migration have characterized Zimbabwe since independence in 1980 – the first occurred immediately after independence when many, especially whites, left to avoid the new black majority government, and the second was driven by the increasing punitive measure of the Mugabe-led government (UNHCR, 2020). The economic decline since 1997 saw Zimbabwe’s macro-economic condition deteriorate progressively into a hyperinflationary environment resulting in unstable socio-economic conditions that plunged Zimbabwe into its worst economic crisis in a decade rendering life a struggle with all necessities in short supply including food, energy for homes, fuel, cash, and medicine - compounded the second wave. Things changed drastically for Zimbabwe and the once prosperous country sunk into an economic decline to the extent that its national currency – the Zimbabwe dollar - lost value and was discarded as a legal tender and replaced with the US dollar.

 Migration Policies

On the national front, the Immigration Act of 1997 amended in 2001 which is administered by the Minister of Home Affairs regulates both entry into, and exit of nationals and foreign nationals in and out of Zimbabwe. There has been considerable evolution in the migration trajectory in Zimbabwe. These changes prompted the government to respond by joining forces with IOM to form a new national migration strategy that culminated, after several workshops, with the drafting of a National Migration Management and Diaspora Policy. The national migration strategy is composed of officials from the migration and Development Unit of the Ministry of Economic Planning and Investment Promotion, the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare, the Ministry of Justice Legal and Parliamentary Affairs, and IOM (IOM, 2018). The Draft policy focuses more on mitigating the challenges the country is facing with the large emigration and cross-border movements. It aimed at the retention and return of highly skilled Zimbabwean nationals and also to promote strategies aimed at opening new channels for legal migration of low and semi-skilled workers (Ibid). The 2013 constitution states that the right to have access to basic healthcare services accrues to only citizens and permanent residents. Refugees and other migrants are excluded. However, the law further states that any person with a chronic disease including migrants has the same right, and children below the age of 18 and the elderly have the right to healthcare services (the Republic of Zimbabwe, 2013). Section 65 of the 2013 constitution recognizes the right to fair and safe labour practices and standards for everyone, citizen, or non-citizen (Ibid). This automatically covers migrant workers. Section 64 further emphasizes “the right of everyone to choose and carry on any profession, trade or occupation” in Zimbabwe (Ibid). It protects and safeguards the employment rights of workers from undue restriction, unfair, and unsafe treatment, and unjustified discrimination. The law also provides for migrant workers' inclusion to form and join trade unions and participate in trade unions.

 At the regional level, Zimbabwe has a Bilateral Labour Agreement with South Africa for the facilitation of the recruitment of commercial farms in Limpopo province in South Africa. Zimbabwe is also a member of Migration Dialogue for Southern Africa, that aim amongst other things, to foster cooperation among SADC member states on migration-related issues, thus enhancing their capacity to manage migration within a regional context.

At the continental level, Zimbabwe ratified the African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (Kampala Convention) and the 1969 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa. Zimbabwe is a member of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) that advocates for the suppression of obstacles to the free movement of people, as well as the recognition of the establishment and residence among member states.

On the international front, Zimbabwe is a party to the international convention on the Protection of the rights of All Migrant workers and Members of their Families, the Geneva Convention relating to the status of refugees (1951), the New YorkProtocol relating to the status of refugees (1967), Protocol to prevent, suppress, and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children (2000), the International Convention on the elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the International Convention on the rights of the Child. These international instruments protect all human beings regardless of their nationality.  

 Governmental Institutions

The Zimbabwe National Statistic Agency (ZIMSTAT) is responsible for the population census in Zimbabwe. The Ministry of Home Affairs and Cultural Heritage is in charge of the identification of all living in Zimbabwe. The Ministry of Home Affairs is also responsible for maintaining public order and security as the Department of police is under this Ministry. It also controls the entry and exit of people across Zimbabwe borders and is also in charge of the issuance of personal documents like passports, refugee permits, etc. Refugee protection, is governed by the Ministry of Public Service, Labour, and Social Welfare. The National Plan of Action is the implementation tool of the Trafficking in Person Act which is rooted on four pillars - prosecution, prevention, protection, and partnership. The Zimbabwe Refugee Committee (ZRC) is the national body mandated under the Refugee Act to conduct refugee status determination (The Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe, 2017).

 Internal Migration

Before 1980, the freedom of movement of most Africans in urban areas within Zimbabwe was restricted by colonial rule. However, after independence, several factors contributed to Rural-Urban migration which include; the lifting of restrictions on rural-urban migration, the difference in economic opportunities and income between the towns and rural communal areas, government development programmes that encouraged urban-based economic development, as well as the surge in public sector employment (Potts & Mutambirwa, 1990). Despite these changes, for economic and security reasons, for example, the high cost of urban lifestyle and unemployment, migrants maintained rural linkages as a form of livelihood security on which to bounce back (Ibid). Kurete (2019) posits that an absence of such urban-rural linkages increases the vulnerability of urban migrants. Migrants are therefore oscillating between their rural and urban set-ups. In 2020, 32.24% of Zimbabwean's total population lived in urban areas (Statista, 2022). Border towns, for example, Matabeleland, which hosts Beitbridge, which sees 7 million people passing through it yearly, are among the magnets for rural-urban migration in Zimbabwe as many believe they can earn a living from the millions of people who pass through these border posts (All Africa, 2021).

 Internally Displaced Persons

Historically, Zimbabwe is associated with three types of displacement – conflict, development-induced displacement, and natural disasters. Recently two types of displacements are common in Zimbabwe – conflict and natural disasters – with natural disasters being the main driver of internal displacement. Despite the fact that there is no legal framework specifically recognizing and providing for the protection and assistance of Internal Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Zimbabwe, the 2013 constitution, however, articulates a Bill of Rights that protects the basic rights of IDPs ( Ndlovu & Nwauche, 2021).

 Conflict

Post-independent Zimbabwe recorded one of its highest numbers of conflict-induced displacement between 1980 – 1987 with the Gukurahundi massacres in Matabeleland and Midlands that saw thousands of Ndebele people displaced from the Southwestern part of the country into the crowded cities and beyond (Ibid). In 2009, there were 15,000 internally displaced persons in Zimbabwe as a result of conflict, the number dropped to 280 in 2012, and by the end of 2021, no one was reported to have been displaced because of conflict (IDMC, 2022).

 Disaster

In 2021, there were an additional 2,400 people displaced as a result of natural disasters taking the total of natural disaster-related internal displacement to 43,000 (IDMC, 2022). Heavy rains caused flooding, mudslides, and destruction of infrastructure in Manicaland, Mashonaland - East and Central, Matabeleland - South, and Masvingo provinces displacing people (Floodlist, 2021). Tropical cyclone Dineo hit Tsholosho District in Zimbabwe in February 2017, killing seven persons, and destroying more than 4,000 houses and government structures, causing people to be on the move (Carol, et al. 2019). The majority of IDPs (97%) at the time were residing within host communities while a small proportion (3%) were seeking shelter in four established IDP camps (United Nations Central Emergency Response Funds, 2019). Only 18% of the affected population receive emergency support (Ibid).

 Immigration

Zimbabwe, in the 1980s, after it gained its independence, was an attraction for foreign nationals as the newly elected leader of the nation – Robert Mugabe, preached hope and reconciliation following a bitter and protracted war for independence. There was economic posterity in the 1980s. However, this was short-lived as the country started experiencing an economic decline in the late 1990s. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) 2019 report, there were an estimated 398,300 international migrants in 2010, 400,500 in 2015, and 411,300 in 2019, with a majority of them coming from Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. Data from the Department of Immigration Control shed light on the number of Temporary Employment Permits (TEPs) issued to foreign nationals. Between 2010 and 2016, the Government of Zimbabwe issued 18,436 TEPs to foreign nationals from 74 countries, with the majority (11,272) issued to Chinese nationals accounting for 71% and South Africa 1,859, followed by India and Zambia (IOM, 2021a).

 Female Migration  

There is no precise information on the nature of the female immigrant population in Zimbabwe. However, the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) gives general statistics on the total female immigrant population in Zimbabwe without any specificities. In 2010, 43% (171,269) of the international migrant stock were women. In 2015, the female international migrant stock stood at 43.7% (175,019). In 2019, it was estimated to be 43.2% (177,682) of the international migrant stock (UN DESA, 2019). The data indicate a fairly stable female migration pattern into Zimbabwe.

 Children

There is no specific statistic on the number of migrant children in Zimbabwe. However, the UNHCR indicates that there are nearly 7500 refugee children in Zimbabwe (UNHCR, 2022). Even though Zimbabwe is a signatory to the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of Child that requires the country to provide access to basic services to all children including migrant children, unaccompanied migrant children, and children of refugees, in Zimbabwe, the Refugee Act (2001) and the Immigration Act (2001) provides protection for refugees and their children – under the age of eighteen years, thus excluding unaccompanied migrant children. Despite the fact that the Children’s Act stipulates that vulnerable children or children in need of care have the right to access basic services through the National Case Management System, the Act is silent on whether unaccompanied migrant children who are non-Zimbabwean are a category of “vulnerable children” or “children in need of care” (IOM, 2017). However, the National Plan for Orphan and Vulnerable Children developed in 2007 included “unaccompanied migrant children” in its definition as part of those qualified to access basic services in Zimbabwe.

 Refugees and Asylum seekers

With its fair share of problems with locals eager to leave the country, Zimbabwe remains an attractive destination for vulnerable groups – refugees and asylum seekers who are fleeing persecution in their home country. Zimbabwe hosts refugees that emanate mostly from the Great Lake Regions. Zimbabwe adopts the Camp model of managing refugees. There are two refugee camps in Zimbabwe: the Tongogara refugee camp in Manicaland Province is the main refugee camp, and the Waterfalls refugee transit camp in Harare. The transit camp in Harare provides temporary shelter and other needs to refugees undergoing the status determination process before being transferred to the Tongogara refugee camp (IOM, 2017). Also, some refugees live in urban areas – mainly in Harare.  According to the UNHCR report of 2021, there were 22,600 people of concern in Zimbabwe - more than 53% from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The people of concern in Zimbabwe come from DRC (12,020), Mozambique (3157), Rwanda (850), Burundi (964), and others (609) (UNHCR, 2021). Nationals from the Great Lake regions made up more than 85% of asylum seekers and refugees in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is also host to a small number of refugees from Somalia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia (Ibid).

 Emigration

There are no precise statistics on the number of Zimbabweans living abroad. While IOM reports that an estimated 571,970 Zimbabweans were living abroad (IOM, 2018), the Afro Barometer indicates that three to four million Zimbabweans were living abroad (Ndoma, 2017). According to the migration Data Portal, Zimbabwe is the top country of origin of immigrants residing in Southern Africa (911,981), constituting 14% of the total immigrant population in the region (Migration Data Portal, 2022). The top 5 destination countries for Zimbabwean international migrants include South Africa, the United Kingdom, Malawi, Australia, and Botswana. However, it is widely argued that the above statistics fall short of painting a true image of emigration from Zimbabwe because of its circular and irregular nature (as not all migrants are registered, and some of those registered at times give false information). Due to its proximity to South Africa, Zimbabwe has been a transit country for migrants from countries in the Horn and Central Africa, such as Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea, Tanzania, and others en route to South Africa (IOM, 2021)

The first phase of skilled emigrants (mostly white people) left the country immediately after independence in the early 1980s. The second phase from 1990 till date is considered a “brain drain” as thousands of highly skilled Zimbabweans are leaving the country as a result of the economic decline and political unrest. The hardest-hit sectors are the educational and health sector, closely followed by the accounting sector. A study conducted by Afro Barometer revealed that 64% of respondents with post-secondary or secondary qualifications (55%) are far more likely to emigrate (Ndoma, 2017). International Organisation for Migration (IOM) estimated that the emigration of doctors was reaching 51%, and the main receiving countries were South Africa, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Australia (IOM, 2018). Zimbabwean teachers constitute the largest group of migrant teachers in South Africa – 61% (De Villiers & Weda, 2017).

 Labour Migration

Zimbabwe has a long history of labour migration. Besides being a sender, and a transit country for labour migrants, Zimbabwe is also a receiver of migrant labour – especially from Malawi, Mozambique, and South Africa. According to IOM (2020) a labour migration report estimated that there were 78,000 migrant labour workers in Zimbabwe constituting 37.7% of the total migrant population in Zimbabwe. In an attempt to protect migrant workers, both in Zimbabwe and Zimbabwean living and working abroad, the government initiated the National Labour Migration Policy (NLMP) of Zimbabwe. Despite the progressive nature of the NLMP, Zimbabwe is yet to ratify the International Labour Organisation (ILO) Convention 97 on migration for Labour and 143 on Migrant Workers Supplementary Provision.

 Human Trafficking

Zimbabwe is a tier 2 country in the Trafficking in Person (TIP) report. Despite its efforts in combating trafficking, Zimbabwe does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking. For example, the draft amendments to the 2014 trafficking in Persons Act to bring the law in line with international standards by 2020 is not yet ratified, and the government failed to provide adequate funding to its NGOs partners on which it relied to provide protective protection services to victims of human trafficking (US Department of State, 2020). According to the United States Department of States Trafficking in Person Report (TPR), 2021, “Zimbabwe is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children trafficked for forced labour and sexual exploitation”. In Zimbabwe, children and adults are exploited in sex trafficking and forced labour, especially in agriculture, forestry, and fishing, and also in domestic services and mining (Ibid). With the closure of schools because of the covid-19 pandemic and the worsening economic situation in Zimbabwe, there was a spike in child sex trafficking and child labour. Certain traditional practices, for example, replacing brides for deceased family members and avenging the spirit of a murdered relative, rendered young girls vulnerable to forced labour and sex trafficking (Ibid). Out of Zimbabwe, traffickers use false promises of legitimate employment opportunities, and scholarship schemes and lure Zimbabwean adults and children into sex trafficking and forced labour in South Africa, Iraq, Kenya, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Uganda, United Kingdom, and Ireland (Ibid).

 Remittances

The profound deterioration of the Zimbabwean economy and the subsequent hyperinflation estimated at 231 million percent, resulting in a 94% unemployment rate, precipitated a mass exodus of Zimbabweans escaping the economic hardship while continuing to support the family they left behind (Truen, et al., 2016). According to the World Bank (2022), the remittance flow in Zimbabwe experienced a steady increase from 2009 ($1.21 billion) to its all-time high in 2012 ($2.11 billion). Subsequently, it experienced a decline, and in 2019 it stood at $1.42 billion, and it picked up in 2020 ($1.83 billion). These are flows through registered formal money transfers and banking channels. There is a growing form of informal money transfer channels, including migrants using drivers and passengers crossing the borders. Within Zimbabwe, remittances constitute between 13.6% - 10.1% of GDP from 2011 to 2020 (World Bank, 2022). Even though remittance flows are vulnerable to exogenous shocks, they remain an important contributor to Zimbabwe’s balance of payment as it is more than twice the amount of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2021). At the national level, remittances flow positively influences economic development as it catalyzes the rate of capital formation through increased capital inflow (Mubhawu, Masere, & Gurira, 2018). At the household level, remittance flow has acted as a form of social protection for many families.

 Returns and Returnees

According to IOM (2021b), due to the devastating effect of covid-19 in the Southern region of Africa with far-reaching consequences for Zimbabwean emigrants living within the region, including financial challenges, hunger and loss of accommodation, lack of access to medical assistance, mental health support, identity document issues and the risk of assault in their host country, thousands of Zimbabwean emigrants have voluntarily returned home. According to IOM (2021c), Zimbabwe has received a total of 380,967 returning migrants since the onset of the covid-19 pandemic. However, from 2018 until 2020, a total of 91,413 Zimbabwe migrants consisting of 19,630 females, 66,140 males, and 5,643 accompanied and unaccompanied minors in irregular migration flows were returned from Botswana and South Africa (IOM, 2021a). At one of the points of entry – the Beitbridge reception and support centre, returnees are supported with services, including food, information, and onward travel to their communities of origin (IOM, 2021c). IOM argues that with the imminent challenge of economic reintegration in their host country, returnees could resort to irregular migration. In response - IOM, through its Crisis Response Plan in Zimbabwe, seeks to promote socio-economic reintegration through self-employment, community income projects, and livelihood activities (IOM, 2021a).

 International Organisations

The key players in migration-related issues in Zimbabwe are the International Organisation for Migration (IOM) and the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR). IOM Zimbabwe is recognised by the government of Zimbabwe as the principal international inter-governmental organisation addressing the entire spectrum of migration issues. UNHCR plays an essential role in migration-related issues in the country as it assists refugees, asylum seekers, and community members in the areas of education, health, food security and nutrition, protection, water sanitation, and hygiene, camp coordination and management, access to energy, and community empowerment and self-reliance amongst others.

Other migration-related UN agencies in Zimbabwe include the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) which is working in the area of creating sustainable growth to improve people’s lives, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) assists refugee children with access to education, WFP, which helps food-insecure people including refugees to meet their basic food and nutrition requirements, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) works in the areas of advocacy – promotes detainee welfare including migrants, support health services and restore family links separated by disaster. Mercy Corps provides assistance and relief to people affected by disasters, for example, Cyclone Idai, and GOAL which is designed to build resilience and sustainable livelihood by improving health, water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and nutrition systems, supporting refugees, and strengthening the value chains needed to foster long-term financial security.