South Sudan

Banner photo: Juba-lation by Rene' Del Carme from Flick-r 

Historical Background

The Republic of South Sudan is the youngest nation in the world. It became independent from Sudan only on 9 July 2011 following the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005 and the referendum and independence process in 2011(Maastricht Graduate School of Governance – MGSoG, 2017). Its history is therefore connected to that of Sudan. Historically, both countries have been home to different ethnic groups, tribes, religions, and cultures converging and living alongside one another (International Organization for Migration – IOM, 2021). In 1899, a condominium government was jointly established by the United Kingdom and Egypt (CIA World Factbook, 2024). The colonisation of Sudan ended in 1956, giving self-determination to a unified Sudan (ibid). Since then, social, economic, and political issues have escalated into conflict and eventually civil war (ibid). The more acute phases of the conflicts occurred between 1956 and 1972, and 1983 and 2004. This second phase led to more than 2 million deaths and more than 4 million people displaced mainly in the South of Sudan (ibid). The Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 9 January 2005 ended the conflict between North and South Sudan and paved the way for the creation of a Government of National Unity (GoNU) and a Government of Southern Sudan (GoSS), the elections held in 2010, and a referendum on the self-determination of Southern Sudan in 2011 (ibid).

In 2013, following economic disparity from shutting down oil production plants in South Sudan, a civil war emerged, pushing millions of South Sudanese into a humanitarian crisis (MGSoG, 2017). War broke out as the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement broke into two main factions – Sudan’s People Liberation Army (SPLA) and Sudan’s People Liberation Army-in-Opposition (SPLA-IO) – and conflict ensued between the two (ibid). The refugee situation in South Sudan reached an unprecedented level, caused by both pre- and post-2013 events. An internationally mediated peace agreement was achieved in 2015, and a transitional government was composed. However, heavy fighting broke out in the capital Juba in July 2016 and there has been renewed fighting in Juba since 2024 (United Nations, 2024). The gradual implementation of the September 2018 peace agreement, including the formation of the unity government in February 2020 and the agreement on the number of states, provided a positive economic outlook earlier in 2020 (World Bank, 2024). Since then, various crises – such as the outbreak of Covid-19 and the renewed conflict in Juba which is forcing people to move – have adversely affected the country’s economic progress.

Historically, migration into South Sudan was rooted in the search for economic opportunities, cultural/ethnic/social ties, and the search for political protection (Sebba, 2007). An example of this was the migration pattern between Uganda and South Sudan. However, with the recurrent political instability in the country, South Sudan has become known as an origin country of forced migrants and a transit country for irregular migrants (MGSoG, 2017). Yet, as research has pointed out, gathering data on migration in South Sudan is complicated due to ongoing conflict and the region's constantly changing patterns of migration (ibid). The uncertain political situation and adverse climatic conditions in South Sudan since its independence have contributed enormously to human mobility. In essence, the migration history of the country is intricately linked to conflict, violence, and disaster.

Migration Policies 

South Sudan is a rather young nation that has inherited a limited number of laws and policies related to migration. The country therefore faces various challenges in responding to migration issues.

Legislation on migrants and migration includes the 2003 Nationality Act, which provides for matters related to nationality and naturalisation, the 2012 Refugee Act, which outlines the country’s duties and responsibilities towards refugees, the 2008 Child Act, which includes and protects the children of refugees and internally displaced persons, and the 2011 Passports and Immigration Act, which provides for matters related to nationality, identification documentation, and immigration including entry, departure, registration, and deportation. Regarding human trafficking, the 2008 Penal Code, the 2008 Child Act, and the 2018 Labour Act all criminalised some forms of sex and labour trafficking but they have not been properly implemented. The authorities have not reported investigating or prosecuting any forced labour or sex trafficking crimes since 2012.

South Sudan signed most regional conventions and treaties in 2013, such as the 2009 African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (Kampala Convention), the 1969 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, the Abuja Treaty establishing the African Economic Community (AEC), which states in Article 4 that freedom of movement of persons is a sine qua non-condition for the establishment of an African common market, and the 1981 African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, which authorises free movement and choice of residence within a member state of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and prohibits the collective expulsion of foreigners. South Sudan is also part of a European Union-Horn of Africa inter-regional forum on migration, known as the Khartoum Process, with the creation of a political platform among EU, North African and East African countries on the migration route between the Horn of Africa and Europe.

However, South Sudan is not a signatory to most international conventions on migration. South Sudan is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, the 2000 UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its related protocols, the 1954 UN Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, or the 1961 UN Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness. South Sudan is a state party to seven International Human Rights Treaties and is not a signatory to the 1990 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families.

Overall, South Sudan's legislative framework fails to adequately address migration, protect vulnerable individuals, and provide basic services (Maastricht Graduate School of Governance, 2017). The IOM recommends that South Sudan strengthens its border management system, improves its infrastructure and the capacities of its relevant authorities, and creates a partnership with its diaspora.

Governmental Institutions

A key national actor in migration in South Sudan is the Directorate of Immigration, Passport, Nationality and Identification. It is mandated to facilitate the legal movement of persons across the country and other national borders to foster economic growth while dealing with security concerns. Other government ministries and agencies that play a role in migration and mobility governance in South Sudan include the Ministry of Labour, Public Service, and Human Resource Development (MOLPSHRD); the Commission for Refugee Affairs; the Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs and Disaster Management; the Relief and Rehabilitation Commission; the Ministry of Gender, Child and Social Welfare; the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport; the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology; and the South Sudan Investment Authority. In December 2019, the Technical Task Force on Anti-Human Trafficking and Smuggling of Persons of the Republic of South Sudan was established but it is suffering from a lack of funding.

Internal Migration

There is no empirical data on internal migration in South Sudan. Because of the country's political instability, internal migration is mostly characterised by forced displacement. 

Internally Displaced Persons (conflict/violence and disaster)

Internal displacement constitutes one of the common migration patterns in South Sudan. The country's conflict, insecurity, and changing weather patterns contribute significantly to internal displacement. According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC, 2023), more than 2.1 million people were estimated to be internally displaced because of conflict, violence, and disaster-related displacements in South Sudan. According to the IDMC (2023), this figure represents a 13% increase from 2021, a clear indication of the escalating nature of the humanitarian crises in South Sudan. 

The failure to implement the 2018 Revitalized Peace Accord between the government and Non-State Armed Groups (NSAGs) means continuous tension and fighting between these two factions, which contribute to displacements. For example, with reference to violence and conflict, the presence of NSAGs in Tambura has increased tension and fear among communities which has led to the displacement of an estimated 10,500 people (United Nations Mission in South Sudan – UNMISS, 2024). With reference to disaster-related displacements, floods have displaced an estimated 379,000 people across 22 counties and in  the Abyei Area (OCHA, 2024). Most of the displaced population live in camps constructed and supported by NGOs. The displaced population in South Sudan is subjected to miserable living conditions where they experience poor water and food provision, inappropriate hygiene conditions, lack of services, and/or delays in medical treatment (Jesuit Refugee Service, 2024). With such deplorable living conditions, children are the most affected. Furthermore, recurrent conflict, violence, and disaster-related displacement create food insecurity as people are unable to cultivate consumable goods.

 Immigration

Recently, the discovery of oil reserves in South Sudan and the search for economic opportunities have been the major pull force of international migrants to the country. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA, 2025), the immigrant population stock in South Sudan stood at 230,700 in 2010, declined to 844,100 in 2015, and increased slightly to 882,300 in 2020 and 914,000 in 2024.

The decreasing international migration stock in the country from the 2010 immigration stock can be partly attributed to the political instability that has ravaged the country since the war in 2013.

Female Migration

The uncertain political situation in South Sudan does not attract many female migrants into the country. However, as a transit country, South Sudan is used by migrants, including female migrants, especially from Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, who want to go to Southern Africa or Europe through irregular channels (IOM, 2023). According to UN DESA (2025), the share of the female immigrant population stock in South Sudan stood at 48.4% of the international migration stock in 2010 and increased slightly to 48.9% in 2015 and remained unchanged at 49.7% in 2020 and 2024.

The statistics indicate that despite the country's political uncertainty, the number of female immigrants experienced a stable increase between 2010 and 2024. One of the reasons for the slight increase in the female immigration stock is the country’s location along the southern and western migration routes which makes it an attractive destination for most transit migrants who rely on irregular migration channels.

Children

Child migration in South Sudan is highly complex and dynamic. While South Sudanese children are displaced from their communities because of conflict, violence, and disaster, South Sudan is also home to child migrants, mostly those who are displaced from neighbouring countries. According to UN DESA (2021), the stock of international child migrants 19 years and younger in South Sudan stood at 40.7% of the international migration stock in 2010 and decreased to 34.4% in 2015 and 2020. The decline in the child migration stock in South Sudan can be partly attributed to the conflict, violence, and disasters that have ravaged the country since independence. However, because of the increasing political tension and war in Sudan, South Sudan represents a “safe haven” to most child migrants escaping war. According to Save the Children (2024), since April 2023 when the conflict in Sudan escalated, an estimated 476,000 children have fled to South Sudan. The conflict in the region is a clear indicator that there is a higher probability of children being on the move between countries within the region.

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

Although South Sudan is an origin country of refugees and asylum seekers, the country’s proximity to other refugee-origin countries in the region also makes it a refugee-destination country in the region. In January 2025, there were an estimated 527,737 refugees and 3,038 asylum seekers in South Sudan (UNHCR, 2025).

The refugees (500,521 or 94.3%) predominantly come from Sudan (ibid). Other origin countries of refugees in South Sudan include the Democratic Republic of Congo (14,151), Ethiopia (7,145), Eritrea (3,985), Central African Republic (2,760), Burundi (1,633), others (542), and Somalia (38) (ibid). Refugees in South Sudan are hosted across 30 locations and four major refugee camps (Maban, Jamjang, Wedweil, and Gorom) (UNHCR, 2024a). 

Refugees and asylum seekers and members of their host communities are supported by the UNHCR, the government, and other partners with both immediate needs and durable solutions regarding water, shelter, medical care, access to identity documentation, livelihood opportunities, and inclusion in the national system for access to, among others, health care and education (ibid). Although refugees and asylum seekers are accorded some level of support in the country, they still face challenges such as child and forced family separation, gender-based violence, theft, extortion, forced eviction or destruction of personal property, and impediment and restricted access to legal identity, remedies, and justice (Protection Cluster & UNHCR, 2024a). With the current political landscape characterised by recurrent insurgent attacks on the government and the absence of a stable government, the comprehensive protection of refugees and asylum seekers remains a daunting task. 

Emigration

Currently, the nature of migration out from South Sudan has been predominantly informed by forced migration with the majority of South Sudanese seeking refuge in other countries. Updated literature on the emigration stock of South Sudanese living abroad for leisure or work is limited. However, according to the MGSoG (2017), before the outbreak of the civil war in 2013, South Sudanese emigrants were living predominantly in African countries such as Chad, Ethiopia, Uganda, Sudan, and Kenya, or in countries such as Saudi Arabia, the USA, United Arab Emirates, Australia, and Canada. However, it would be very myopic to think that every migrant from South Sudan is a refugee or someone who is seeking international protection.

Labour Migration

South Sudan used to be a popular destination country especially for irregular migrant workers because of its porous borders, weak border management, and the perception of economic opportunities compared to that of neighbouring countries. The trend of South Sudan as a primary destination country for migrant workers from neighbouring countries could be ascribed to a growing demand for goods and services and the lack of a local and skilled workforce in South Sudan at the time (MGSoG, 2017). Additionally, the oil-driven economic boom attracted migrants who sought better opportunities. This migration trend existed before the civil war and most migrants returned home or moved onwards when war broke out or left later, in 2016, with the resurgence of violence (ibid). Before the outbreak of the war, between 2011 and December 2013, there were an estimated 500,000 to 1.2 million labour migrants in South Sudan (ILO, 2020).

Most of the migrant workers in South Sudan are employed in the private sector (for example, security, transportation, telecommunication, logistics and procurement, energy, hotels and tourism, education and training) and international and national NGOs (for example, United Nations Mission for South Sudan, the IOM, and the UNHCR) (ILO, 2021). Although South Sudan is endowed with natural resources such as oil and mineral gases which could create opportunities for nationals and migrants, the absence of a stable government and recurrent attacks by insurgent groups make the country undesirable to labour migrants.

Human Trafficking

South Sudan is a source and destination country for the forced labour and sex trafficking of men, women, and children. According to the 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report by the United States Department of State, South Sudan has been a Tier 3 country since 2015 as it “does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so”. The report also indicates that although there are legal frameworks that criminalise human trafficking in the country, their enforcement has been negligible. For example, the government reported investigating one trafficking case in the current reporting year. However, the government has not reported any trafficking prosecution or convictions for the twelfth consecutive year (US Department of State, 2024).

It is estimated that between 7,000 and 19,000 minors are in combat roles in South Sudan with both government and opposition forces known to recruit child soldiers (ibid). Also, cultural practices that endorse cattle raids and the abduction of women and children only make a bad situation worse (ENACT, 2024). Children are also coerced to work in construction, market vending, shoe shining, car washing, rock breaking, brick making, delivery cart pulling, begging, and cattle herding (US Department of State, 2024). South Sudanese women and girls, mainly from rural areas or internally displaced, are vulnerable to domestic servitude throughout the country (ibid).

South Sudanese and foreign business owners in South Sudan recruit men and women from neighbouring countries, including Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, and Uganda, as well as South Sudanese women and children, on the basis of false employment opportunities in hotels, restaurants, and construction, resulting in labour exploitation or sex trafficking. It is reported that some traffickers operate in organised networks within South Sudan and transnationally (ibid). The absence of the rule of law or its inadequacy in a country like South Sudan where certain cultural practices that are contrary to the constitution of the country become a norm and are celebrated within certain communities, means that the scourge of human trafficking can only thrive within such communities.

Remittances

In a country prone to natural disasters and with economic growth hampered by challenges such as corruption and maladministration, remittance flow becomes a lifeline to most people. Due to the political instability that has engulfed the country since it gained independence in 2011, there is a lack of strong financial institutions that can provide a comprehensive understanding of the flow of remittances in the country. However, according to the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) and the United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF) (2023), in 2021, the inbound remittance flow to South Sudan amounted to US$ 1.2 million accounting for 23.9% of the gross domestic product (GDP). These remittances came from an estimated 2.6 million remittance-sending migrants, primarily in Uganda, Sudan, and Ethiopia (ibid). 

It is important to note that migrants also rely on informal channels to send money or goods back home. Although remittances are not, in most instances, used for investment purposes in South Sudan, they are used for daily life contingencies (food and everyday necessities, planned education, and medical expenses) (IOM, 2021). The challenges of remitting money to South Sudan include limited access to financial institutions, uncertain investment conditions, and the high cost of remitting (IGAD & UNCDF, 2023; IOM, 2021). Although remittance flow might not have a direct impact on the economy, it has a direct impact on the households of those who benefit from such flows. 

Return and Returnees

South Sudan’s refugee crisis is unique on the African continent. While the political and climatic situation in South Sudan is highly volatile and has caused massive displacements to neighbouring countries, the political crisis in some neighbouring countries is forcing displaced people to return home. It is important to note that, because of the high cost associated with migrating and the cultural ties among South Sudanese people, the majority of those who are displaced live in neighbouring countries. According to the UNHCR (2024), as of August 2024, there were an estimated 1,503,835 refugee returnees in South Sudan. Within the region, between April 2023 and October 2024, the political crisis in Sudan triggered the return of an estimated 640,000 South Sudanese back home (UNHCR, 2024b). Typical challenges that returnees face include access to financial resources and returning to communities still in crisis (conflict, violence, and disaster), which makes a sustainable livelihood very uncertain. The current political, climatic, and economic situation in South Sudan does not guarantee that returnees will stay in their host communities.

International Organisations

Most activities pertaining to migration are organised by international organisations such as the following:

 International Organization for Migration:. The IOM has been present in South Sudan since 2004 and has been doing ongoing training with the South Sudanese government and the Directorate of Immigration, Passport, Nationality and Identification to build capacities. The IOM has eight offices across six South Sudan states and employs over 340 staff. Currently, the IOM provides a range of services in cooperation with the South Sudan government, humanitarian partners and local communities. These services include humanitarian assistance, transition and recovery, border management, and migration health initiatives.

 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: The UNHCR is involved in protecting refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) in South Sudan. The UNHCR assists asylum seekers, returnees, and people at risk of statelessness, and provides access to primary health care services and primary education to refugees' children.

 Norwegian Refugee Council: In Juba, the Norwegian Refugee Council provides humanitarian assistance to IDPs, refugees, and returnees.