Mozambique

Historical Background

Mozambique’s history of cross-border migration dates back to long before colonialism. Already in the mid-19th century, migrant workers from the now-known Mozambique went to work in the Kimberley diamond mines in current-day South Africa (Crush et al., 2005). With the advent of colonialism and the creation of colonial farms, migration dynamics shifted somewhat. Through forced labour, many Mozambican nationals were conscripted to work on the colonial plantation farms and railways in Mozambique (Guthrie, 2016). However, this did not stop cross-border migration as the discovery of gold mines in the Witwatersrand in 1886 only intensified the flow of mine labour workers (Crush et al., 2005). In addition to mining, labour migrants from Mozambique were employed on commercial farms and in factories, domestic service, transportation, and construction in other countries such as Zimbabwe (ibid). For example, in 1911 and 1951, there were 114,976 and 161,240 labour migrants in South Africa and 13,588 and 101,618 labour migrants in Zimbabwe respectively (ibid). Historical migration patterns were therefore typically driven by economic opportunities outside the country. Current patterns of migration in Mozambique are mostly driven by conflict-related internal displacements caused by the outbreak of the Civil War (1977 – 1992), the more recent extremist attacks in the northern province of Cabo Delgado, the post-election violence following the disputed outcome of the October 2024 presidential elections, and disaster-related displacements caused by severe droughts, devastating cyclones and floods.

Historically, the majority of labour migrants from Mozambique were unskilled (mostly working on farms and the railway, and in mines). Recently, however, the majority of emigrants are skilled workers. Emigration of well-educated and skilled Mozambicans is commonplace and results in brain drain. According to the IOM (2014), the high volume of skilled emigration from the country hurts key sectors of the economy, notably agriculture, education, health care, and engineering.

The impact of colonisation and the arbitrary carving of colonial territories in Africa left Mozambique with 58 border posts. With so many border posts, Mozambique has become a country of destination, transit, and origin for people engaged in complex mixed-migration movements and also for people from the East and Horn of Africa (IOM, 2018; IOM, 2024). A significant number of the migrants involved in these movements come from Ethiopia and Somalia, and although some seek asylum in Mozambique, many try to move onward to South Africa (IOM, 2024).

Migration Policies

The national legal framework for refugee protection in Mozambique is established by Act No. 21/1991 of 31 December 1991, known as the Refugee Act, and the ensuing Decree 33/2007 which regulates the determination of refugee status (National Legislative Bodies/National Authorities, 1991). The former provides refugee definitions in line with the provisions of the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1969 OAU Convention. Additionally, before the 1991 Act, the Mozambique 1986 Directive shaped the refugee determination process. Over and above refugee legislation, there is the Nationality Act 2 of 1982 and immigration legislation in the form of the National Assembly Law 5 of 1993 which govern and establish a juridical regime for foreign citizens, namely norms of entry, residence, and departure from the country, and also rights, duties, and privileges while in the country.

Mozambique has ratified but made significant reservations to the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, also known as the 1951 Refugee Convention or the Geneva Convention. Some of these reservations include Art. 13 (“Movable and Immovable Property”), Art. 17 (“Wage-earning Employment”), Art. 19 (“Liberal Profession”), Art. 22 (“Public Education”), Art. 26 (“Freedom of Movement), and Art. 34 (“Naturalization”) (UNHCR, 2020). Despite these reservations registered, the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) is satisfied that Mozambique in general maintains a generous asylum policy through the adoption of practical arrangements that grant asylum seekers and refugees rights similar to those of its nationals. Reservations to the 1951 Convention have therefore had limited impact on the actual treatment of refugees and asylum seekers who enjoy most of the relevant rights in practice. The only restriction observed is the limitation of the right of refugees and asylum seekers to freedom of movement and choice of residence from one province or district to another (UNHCR, 2023). Refugees are required to apply and obtain travelling passes from the Instituto Nacional de Apoio Refugiados (National Refugee Support Institute – INAR) called Guia de Marcha which allows them to move from one province/district to another (ibid). Challenges in obtaining the Guia de Marcha from INAR include the location of the issuing office as not all the provinces/districts have such offices, and the time it takes to be issued with such travelling passes.

Mozambique has ratified the 1969 Convention of the Organization of African Unity governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, the 1967 Protocol to the Geneva Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, and the African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (Kampala Convention) of 2009. Mozambique is not a party to either the 1954 or 1961 Statelessness Convention.

The government of Mozambique has some legislation to counter human trafficking including the 2008 Law on Preventing and Combating the Trafficking of People, criminalised sex trafficking and labour trafficking, with prescribed penalties of 16 to 20 years imprisonment. Further legislation and policy that would assist in improving and eliminating trafficking include implementing a National Action Plan to combat human trafficking, passing the draft national referral mechanism, and developing effective policies or laws to regulate foreign recruiters and hold them liable for fraudulent recruiting.

Except for the limitation on the freedom of movement of refugees and asylum seekers (see the section on refugees and asylum seekers), Mozambique has adopted a more welcoming, protecting, and integrated approach to people on the move if adequately implemented.

Governmental Institutions

In Mozambique, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation (MINEC) is the main body in charge of migration issues. The main subordinate and supervised institution of MINEC in charge of dealing with migration is the National Refugee Support Institute (INAR). The main activities of the Provincial Delegation of the INAR are welcoming, protecting, and giving humanitarian assistance to refugees and asylum seekers. Other government ministries and institutions covering migrants and migration matters include the Ministries of Interior, Labour, Health, State Administration, and the General Prosecutor's Office, and coordination entities including the National AIDS Council (CNCS) and the National Institute for Disaster Management (INGC) and various municipalities and provincial offices (IOM, 2024).

Internal Migration

Internal migration is one of the under-researched areas of mobility in Mozambique. Most of the studies on internal migration in the country rely on data from the last three censuses conducted (1997, 2007, and 2017) (Ibraimo & Egger, 2023; Muanamoha & Raimundo, 2018). Using the census data of 1997 and 2007, Muanamoha and Raimundo (2018) looked at the prevalence of migration between provinces and identified that Niassa, Manica, and Maputo were the leading destination provinces for migrants while Zambezia, Tete, Inhambane, and Gaza were the leading out-migration provinces. Drawing from the past three census surveys, Ibraimo and Egger (2023) asserted that Mozambique has experienced a decline in its internal migration rate from 21.0% in 1997 to 15.2% in 2007, and 3.8% in 2017. The high internal migration rate recorded in 1997 was a result of the political stability that the country enjoyed coming out of 16 years of civil war which saw thousands of people returning to their homesteads or areas with potential opportunity. Although internal migration is associated with better livelihood, fewer people are migrating (Ibraimo & Egger, 2023). This raises a question for further research: What prevents people from migrating internally in Mozambique?

Internally Displaced Persons (conflict/violence and disaster)

Both conflict/violence and disaster contribute enormously to internal displacement in Mozambique. According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Center (IDMC, 2024), the stock of conflict/violence-related internally displaced people in Mozambique dropped from 1 million people in 2022 to 592,000 by the end of 2023. While displacement associated with conflict/violence decreased, disaster-related displacement increased from 113,000 in 2022 to 655,000 by the end of 2023 (ibid). However, it is important to note that the post-presidential election violence that ensued from October 2024 increased the stock of displacements associated with conflict/violence.

In addition to the 16 years of internal conflict/violence that plagued the country from 1976 to 1992 and displaced millions of people, the insurgency of Non-State Armed Groups (NSAG), particularly Al-Shabaab, and the October 2024 presidential post-election violence are causing thousands of displacements, particularly in the northern province of Cabo Delgado and Maputo. According to the UNHCR (2024a), in January 2024, over 582,000 people were displaced in the northern province of Mozambique as national security forces clashed with NSAGs. In addition to causing displacements, the presence of Non-State Armed Groups compromises national security.

Due to its geography – with more than 2,700 km of coastline and nine international river basins – and inadequate infrastructure, Mozambique is exposed to extreme weather shocks. According to the National Institute of Disaster Risk Management (INGC, 2024), between 24 and 26 March 2024, storms displaced 43,241 people in Maputo, Matola, Boane, and Xai-Xai. Natural disaster-related displacements like storms and floods displace people from their homes while also destroying their livelihoods, which is particularly challenging in a country like Mozambique that is heavily dependent on agriculture. This exacerbates the level of poverty in the affected areas as well as in the country.

Immigration

In the past, Mozambique was known for its labour supply to mines and farms in South Africa, and to neighbouring countries like Zimbabwe and Malawi. Recently, the country receives migrants from African countries such as Malawi, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA, 2025), Mozambique has experienced a steady increase in the flow of its immigration population for over the past two decades. In 2010, Mozambique had an estimated 306,500 immigrants (ibid). In 2015, the number rose to 321,800 and further increased to 338,900 in 2020 and 353,100 in 2024 (ibid).

According to Raimundo (2022), the growing number of immigrants in Mozambique can be ascribed to, among others, the country’s mineral resources boom and its openness to foreign investment, and to the economic and political crises in Zimbabwe. Also, the proximity of Mozambique to one of the largest economies in Africa, namely that of South Africa, makes it a favourable destination for immigrants heading towards South Africa from parts of Africa like Ethiopia, Somalia, and the DRC. Some of the migrants travelling via Mozambique faced major risks such as physical violence from attacks and detention in police holding cells under deplorable conditions (IOM, 2014).

Female Migration

There is a lack of information on female migrants in Mozambique. According to UN DESA (2025), women constituted 51.7% of the immigrant population stock in 2010 and 2015. However, in 2020 and 2024 it experienced a slight decline to 51.2%. This is a clear indication that Mozambique has more female than male immigrants, unlike in other parts of the continent where male immigration rates in most instances supersede female immigration rates. This highlights the feminisation of migration into the country.

Migrant women are involved in the informal economy, particularly in the retail sector where they mostly work as vendors, street traders, or hawkers. With its 58 border posts there is historically established cross-border trading between Mozambique and its neighbours and according to the IOM (2014), three-quarters of those involved in cross-border trading are women. The increased involvement of women in cross-border trading also highlights the role women play in contributing to the economies of their home country and that of Mozambique in addition to contributing to household consumption.

Children

Mozambique is a highly strategic country for child migrants as it is a sending, transit, and receiving destination. The nature of child migration in Mozambique is characterised by mixed movements that include unaccompanied and separate minors, smuggled migrants, refugees and asylum seekers, and victims of human trafficking. Because there is no centralised aggregate database, it is extremely difficult to determine the exact number of child migrants in Mozambique. However, UNICEF (2024) indicated that 0.08 million international child migrants (aged 18 and below) are living in Mozambique. Some of these children live in refugee camps in extreme poverty with dysfunctional health systems. For example, in 2015 UNICEF reported that 205 migrant children were living in the Maratane Refugee Camp (IOM, 2017).

Mozambique has a progressive policy environment that adopted major child rights legislation (the Constitution, the Immigration and Refugee Acts and their respective regulations, the Child’s Act, and the Anti-Trafficking Act) taking the best interest of the child into account. However, the effective implementation of these child rights-based pieces of legislation is lacking as migrant children have become easy targets for labour abuse and human trafficking.

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

As of January 2025, Mozambique hosted 24,302 refugees and asylum seekers (UNHCR, 2025). The refugees and asylum seekers typically come from the Democratic Republic of Congo (9,347), Burundi (8,578), Rwanda (3,521), Somalia (2,260), Cote d'Ivoire (428), and others (163) with most of them coming from the DRC (38.5%) and Burundi (35.3%) (ibid). Although most of the refugees and asylum seekers live in urban areas such as Maputo, a cross-section of the refugees and asylum seekers (46%) live in Nampula province including 31% in the Maratane settlement where they receive assistance from the government and international NGOs such as the World Food Programme (WFP) and the UNHCR (UNHCR | Global Focus, 2025).

Although Mozambique considers the 1951 Geneva provisions as non-binding recommendations, the country has taken practical steps to grant refugees and asylum seekers similar rights to those enjoyed by nationals including the provision of employment/business opportunities, access to education and health care, as well as some degree of freedom of movement (UNHCR & WFP, 2022). Due to volatile political, economic, and climatic conditions in the country, just like nationals, refugees and asylum seekers remain vulnerable to further displacement.

Emigration

Historically, Mozambique was known as an emigrating country. Today, these patterns of emigration are repeating themselves in different ways with people emigrating to search for opportunities or to escape the impact of climate disasters and violence.

In the past, emigration from Mozambique was mainly driven by the effects of the 16-year civil war and the search for opportunities in gold mines and on farms in neighbouring countries like Zimbabwe and South Africa. More recently, the emigration patterns of Mozambicans are still driven by the search for better opportunities mainly in South Africa and beyond the African continent, by hazardous climatic conditions, and by the presence of Non-State Armed Groups. In a country with a poverty rate of 62.8% and with more than 18.9 million people living in poverty (World Bank, 2024c), emigration is seen as a means of combating poverty.

Unlike internal migration which has experienced a significant decline recently, emigration is on the rise. According to UN DESA (2025), Mozambique’s emigration stock stood at 655,000 in 2010, 671,700 in 2015, 689,100 in 2020, and 702,800 in 2024. This signifies a steady increase in the emigration stock over the past two decades. According to the IOM (2020), a greater proportion of them live in South Africa. These figures are estimates as there is no comprehensive database that captures the number of Mozambicans who are living abroad. According to the World Bank (2024b), Mozambique experienced negative net migration from 2021 when it stood at -9,515, and 2022 and 2023 when it remained unchanged at -5,000, indicating that more people left Mozambique than those entering the country. The absence of a comprehensive database of Mozambicans living abroad prevents the government from formulating practical and evidence-based policies that will enable the diaspora to contribute positively to the development of the country. However, through the National Institute for Mozambican Communities Abroad (INACE), the government is making an effort to map the Mozambican diaspora.

Labour Migration

Before the imposition of colonial borders, cross-border trading predominantly done by women was a major source of income for many households between Tanzania and Mozambique, Malawi and Mozambique, Mozambique and Swaziland (Eswatini), and Mozambique and Zimbabwe (IOM, 2014). Although cross-border trading is still taking place between these countries, it is for the most part highly regulated. Like in South Africa and Ghana where African migrants are seen as job stealers, in Mozambique, the nationals share the same sentiments. However, Raimundo (2022) argued that African migrants contribute to job creation and the payment of taxes and rents, and as such contribute to economic growth. In Mozambique, migrant workers predominantly work in the informal sector where they own shops selling construction materials, car spare parts, groceries, and liquor, or they run barber shops or boutiques (ibid). However, the country’s open policy to attract Foreign Direct Investment and the discovery of coal, oil, and gas have attracted thousands of labour migrants in both the formal and informal sectors of the economy (Raimundo, 2021). For example, over the past decade, artisanal mining has attracted labour migrants notably in the three northern provinces of Cabo Delgado, Nampula, and Niassa (British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 2022). With Mozambique’s economic endowment and the recent discovery of oil, gas, and coal, the development of a migration policy will assist in filling labour market shortages while creating revenue through taxation, reducing illicit activities, and boosting economic growth.

Human Trafficking

Although the government of Mozambique does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking, it is making significant efforts to do so. These efforts resulted in Mozambique being classified as a Tier 2 country by the Trafficking in Person Report (US Department of State, 2024). These efforts include implementing strong national awareness-raising campaigns, expressly targeting vulnerable populations, educating more nationwide front-line respondents, and prosecuting all reported trafficking cases (ibid). Mozambique is a source, transit and, to a lesser extent, destination country for children subjected to sex trafficking. In the reporting year (2024), the government reported initiating the investigation of six potential trafficking cases, initiating the prosecution of two alleged traffickers, and obtaining a conviction for two labour traffickers (ibid). The government also reported identifying 16 trafficking victims and together with NGOs provided services (shelter, medical and psychological care, and legal assistance) to 33 potential child trafficking victims (ibid).

Traffickers lure vulnerable migrants, especially women, and girls from rural areas, from neighbouring countries to cities in Mozambique or South Africa with promises of employment or education, and then exploit those victims in domestic servitude, sex trafficking, and farm labour (ibid). For example, in South Africa, traffickers exploit Mozambican men and boys on farms and in mines without pay and turn them over to the police as undocumented migrants for deportation (ibid). Traffickers exploit boys and girls in bars, roadside clubs, overnight stopping points, and restaurants along the southern transport corridor that links Maputo with Eswatini and South Africa. Child sex trafficking is a growing concern in the cities of Maputo, Beira, Chimoio, Tete, and Nacala, which have highly mobile populations and significant numbers of truck drivers (ibid). Additionally, the growth in the extractive industry is leading to an increased demand for sexual services in the cities of Tete and Cabo Delgado, which could potentially contribute to an increase in sex trafficking.

Traffickers also exploit Mozambican adults and girls abroad, including in Angola, Italy, and Portugal, notably for sexual exploitation (British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 2022).

Although the government has formulated policies and programmes to tackle human trafficking in Mozambique, for example the National Action Plan (NAP), the National Referral Mechanism (NRM), and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), these policies and programmes are not yielding the desired results because they are not fully operational (US Department of State, 2023). The lack of implementation restricts access to protective services for victims.

Remittances

Historically, Mozambique has been a supplier of migrant labour to South African mines and farms. This pattern of labour migration has not changed as Mozambique is ranked one of the top five countries that supply migrant labour to South Africa. As a result, remittance flow between South Africa and Mozambique constitutes one of the top four remittance corridors within the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region (FinMark Trust, 2022; Mercandalli et al., 2017). Although it is difficult to ascertain the impact of remittance flow on national development as a significant proportion of the flow goes through informal channels and is not captured, it is evident that remittance flow contributes enormously to reducing household poverty in Mozambique (IFAD, 2024; IMF, 2021; Mercandalli et al., 2017).

According to the World Bank (2024b), Mozambique has enjoyed a steady increase in its remittances received in the country from 2016 when it stood at $93,372,690 to $453,972,066 in 2021, dropping to $303,069,632 in 2022. As a percentage of GDP, remittance flow increased from 0.8% in 2016 to 2.8% in 2021 and dropped to 1.6% in 2022 (ibid). Due to its relevance in poverty reduction, there is a need for the government to incentivise its diaspora through the establishment of formal remitting channels which can help reduce the cost of remitting. Through this process, the real impact of remittances on national development can be measured.

Returns and Returnees

Returnees in Mozambique are both internal and international. According to the UNHCR | Global Focus (2025), there are 571,468 returnees in Mozambique. Internally, thousands of returnees have returned to their communities after being displaced by the activities of NSAGs, especially in the province of Capo Delgado. During the Covid-19 pandemic, a significant volume of international migrants returned to Mozambique when the South African government imposed restrictions on movement and shut down most parts of the economy. As migrant labourers, the closure of most parts of the economy directly impacted their livelihoods as it restricted their access to income and protection. In South Africa, unlike nationals who benefitted from the government’s Covid-19 relief funds, migrants and refugees were, for the most part, excluded from such benefits (The Conversation, 2022). Such exclusion and limited access to work increased the exposure of migrants and refugees to disease and hunger and precipitated their desire to return home. According to Mozambique’s National Migration Service (SENAMI), when the government announced the imminent closure of the borders and restriction of movement a few days after the outbreak of the pandemic, over 14,000 Mozambican migrants returned from South Africa to their home communities, particularly to the southern provinces of Maputo, Gaza, and Inhambane (IOM, 2020). Returnees in Mozambique struggle because of limited access to health care, livelihoods, and education. The challenges facing returnees in the country make them vulnerable to poverty and disease.

International Organisations

The two main international organisations providing migration-related services in Mozambique are the UNHCR and IOM Mozambique. Others include UNICEF, UNV Mozambique, UN Women, and Pathfinder International.

The International Organization for Migration (IOM) in Mozambique runs a variety of programmes, including emergency response, refugee resettlement, repatriation and family reunification, migration and development, and counter-trafficking. Other IOM activities include the promotion of international migration law, policy debate, and guidance, protection of migrants' rights, health, and the gender dimension of migration.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) provides technical assistance to the government of Mozambique to ensure that registration and refugee status determination (RSD) procedures are performed in accordance with international standards. The UNHCR’s assistance to displaced populations in partnership with the Mozambique government includes shelter materials, core relief items such as tarpaulins, sleeping mats, blankets, kitchen sets, buckets, jerry cans, and solar lamps. In addition to essential protection services, gender-based violence risk mitigation, and response activities, the UNHCR is supporting efforts to ensure the integration of displaced families into host communities.

In 2021, key priorities of the UNHCR included the following:

• Supporting the government with the backlog regarding the assessment of refugee status, with documentation for asylum seekers and refugees, and with activities for child safety

• Identifying persons at increased risk of assault and violence based on gender and/or sexual harassment and offering specific assistance to those identified

• Facilitating the peaceful co-existence of local and displaced populations through mutually beneficial ventures

• Improving access to education for refugee and asylum seeker children, both urban and camp-based, which includes access to secondary and tertiary education

• Promoting access to citizenship for refugees and children born in the country seeking asylum and assisting recognised naturalised refugees.