GEOGRAPHICAL INFO (source: CIA Factbook)
Population: 29,464,000 (UNSD, 2018)
Capital city: Accra
Major cities: Kumasi, Sekondi Takoradi
Independence from UK: 1957
Government type: Presidential republic, multi-party system
Main party/Dominant party: New Patriotic Party (second: National Democratic Congress)
President: Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo (since 2017)
Economic activities: market-based economy. Mining, lumbering, light manufacturing, aluminum smelting, food processing, cement, small commercial ship building, petroleum
Transports: The northern part of Ghana has relatively little infrastructure, as it is quite underdeveloped compared to the more wealthy south of Ghana.
Climatic/environmental issues: recurrent drought, deforestation, overgrazing, water pollution, soil erosion
Ethnic groups: Akan 47.5%, Mole-Dagbon 16.6%, Ewe 13.9%, Ga-Dangme 7.4%, Gurma 5.7%, Guan 3.7%, Grusi 2.5%, Mande 1.1%
Official languages: English
Recognized regional languages: Asante 16%, Ewe 14%, Fante 11.6%, Boron (Brong) 4.9%, Dagomba 4.4%, Dangme 4.2%, Dagarte (Dagaba) 3.9%, Kokomba 3.5%, Akyem 3.2%, Ga 3.1%
Religions: Christian 71.2%, Muslim 17.6%, indigenous beliefs 5.2%
Social issues: significant domestic cocaine and cannabis use, malaria and AIDS as health concerns
Neighboring countries: Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Togo
Historical Background
Because of the development of its gold mines and cocoa farms, Ghana - formerly known as the Gold Coast – attracted many migrants from surrounding regions in the late 19th and early 20th century. The number of migrants continued to grow between 1910 and 1957, when Ghana declared its independence. According to the Migration Policy Institute (2006), this was mainly because of organized labour recruitment programs implemented by the colonial government at the time.
After independence, the number of people migrating to Ghana far surpassed the number leaving the country, creating a positive net immigration rate. The 1960 census indicates there were 827,481 people from foreign countries living in Ghana (12% of the population) and 98% of those foreigners were of African descent (Migration Policy Institute, 2006). However, eight years after independence, because of economic and social issues such as high unemployment rates, growing levels of crime and, later, political instability, the trend turned around. By the 1980’s, Ghana had become a country of emigration, which it still is today (Migration Policy Institute, 2006).
Even though during the last decade the situation has improved, Ghana remains a poor country– a major push factor. On the other hand, the existence of large diasporas in Europe and North America continue to be important pull factors. Ghanaian emigrants mainly go to other African countries, often in the region, but there are also those who move to Europe and North America.
Migration policies
Ghana has a well-defined National Migration Policy since 2016 that addresses legal and regulatory aspects of migration. It includes goals, objectives and strategies for the country related to migration. Furthermore, it states that remittances and development as a priority area and lists a number of strategies for harnessing the development potential of remittances (IOM, 2018). The Immigration Act (573) of 2000, the Immigration Amendment Act (848) of 2012, and the Immigration Regulations (L.I 1691) of 2001 serve as Ghana’s primary legislation regulating immigration. The Immigration Act has five parts: Entry and Departure; Residence and Employment of Foreign Nationals in Ghana; Deportation; Exemption, Detention and Petition; Miscellaneous Provisions and Offences. The Immigration Amendment Act was added so as to officially prohibit migrant smuggling and human trafficking. Ghana also has a national strategy specifically for addressing the displacement of people in the case of disasters, called the National Disaster Management Plan. The Ghana Refugee Law (1992) prohibits the expulsion of refugees to countries where the situation is disruptive (IOM, 2018).
Governmental Institutions
The ministry that deals with immigration is the Ministry of Interior, and all institutions involved fall under this ministry’s jurisdiction. Ghana’s Migration Unit, an inter-ministerial body is responsible for coordinating national activities related to migration and the development of a migration policy framework for the country (IOM, 2018). The Ghana Immigration Service (GIS) is responsible for controlling, regulating, conditioning and monitoring the status and activities of foreigners in Ghana, and records entries and exists at several border points. Ghana has clear admission and eligibility criteria, and these are easily accessible (IOM, 2018). The Ghana Refugee Board is responsible for the processing of asylum applications and works to address the needs of asylum seekers and refugees (IOM, 2009). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the most important ministry when it comes to Ghanaian emigration; it is responsible for the protection of Ghanaians abroad (IOM, 2009).
Internal Migration
According to GSS (2014), 34.1% of the Ghanaian population were internal migrants in 2000, and 30.1% in 2010: the majority of people moved inter-regionally rather than intra-regionally, mostly towards urban areas. In 1970, 28.9% of the population lived in cities, whereas in 2000, 43.9% did. In total, migrants (5 years and over) contributed 4,656,959 people to the urban population in 2010, which was made up of 1,904,336 urban-to-urban migrants, and 2,752,623 rural-to-urban migrants – this means that 44.5% of the urban population (5 years or over) are migrants who arrived between 2000 and 2010 (GSS, 2014). Rural-to-urban migration and natural increase are considered the main contributors to this urbanisation. The main reasons behind this migratory route can be explained by economic, social and cultural forces – wage difference and welfare gap, social and cultural amenities in urban areas, parental control in rural areas, job availability, family reunification (GSS, 2014). In Ghana, this also means that internal migration is characterised by southward migration, as the north is mainly rural while the south is largely urbanised.
Among all internal migrant groups, females contribute more than males to the migrant population in the high migration age groups of 15-29 years old. Females are relatively more mobile that males in all regions except in Western and Brong Ahafo (GSS, 2014). Migrants are more likely to be managers and professionals than non-migrants, suggesting that it is the skilled and educated people who migrate.
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)
According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (December 2018), the total number of internally displaced people due to conflict and violence is 5,000, of whom all became IDP’s in the year 2018. The reason for this is fighting between the Konkomba and Chokosi communities, which were triggered by a land dispute in the Chereponi and Saboba districts in Ghana’s northern region. Several houses were burnt down, and many people were injured (IDCM, 2018).
Due to (natural) disaster, the year 2015 saw 9,300 newly displaced persons, 2016 saw 7,900, 2017 saw 23,000 and 2018 saw 61,000 newly displaced persons (101,200 newly displaced persons over the last 4 years) (IDMC, 2018). The main reason for there being such a high number in 2018 is because of a flood in northern Ghana in September 2018.
Immigration
According to UNDESA, the total number of international migrants in Ghana is 466,800 (2019 estimated). The estimated number in 2015 was 414,744. In 2019, international migrants are 1.5% of the total Ghanaian population. The main countries of origin that migrants with Ghana as a destination country come from are Togo (90,343 in 2015), Nigeria (70,214 in 2015) and Ivory Coast (64,621 in 2015). The net migration rate is -0.4 (2015 estimate), meaning that more people leave the country than come in. In the years 2000-2005, however, this rate was positive (0.1); IOM (2009) suggests that this is simply because Ghana remains an important country of destination. It also states that it is likely that Ghana will primarily remain a country of out-migration in the near future.
Female/Gender Migration
According to UNDESA, there were 217,556 female international migrants in Ghana in 2019, which is 46.6% of the total international migrant stock. In 2015, the number was 193,718, which was 46.7% of the total stock. This suggests that relatively, the female international migration stock has been balanced and has remained the same in the last 5 years.
According to IOM (2009), the percentage of male Ghanaian emigrants is higher than that of female ones (which is less than 40%). IOM states that when mothers migrate to other countries, this can be particularly hard on their children, as they drop out of school and can find themselves in situations of neglect and abuse. This could be considered an explanation for why females decide to emigrate less than males.
GSS (2014) states that many young migrant women from the north get involved in head-load carrying, which can increase their vulnerability to poverty and health risks. Furthermore, they can be exposed to sexual exploitation which exposes them to STD’s such as HIV and AIDS. When it comes to employment, female foreign-born workers face another disadvantage. According to an OECD report from 2018, employment rates are lower for women than for men, and the employment rate of female foreign-born workers is lower than the rate for Ghanaian-born women. Additionally, foreign-born women get paid consistently less than Ghanaian-born women (OECD, 2018).
Children
According to UNICEF (2018), 31% of international migrants in Ghana are under 18, while only 3% of Ghanaian emigrants are under the age of 18. Thus, most of the child migration occurs within the country (internal migration). Children often migrate with their parents, but in recent years more and more children are migrating independently, mostly from the northern regions to the south. A main reason includes migrating in a search for employment (GSS, 2014). Another reason is fostering, where a relative in another region takes up the care of the child (Anarfi et al., 2010). Trafficking, however, is also a big cause of child migration, many who for example are sent to work in the fishing industry in the Volta region (IOM, 2019b)..
Children mainly work in the informal sector, even if the majority are unemployed. They can suffer from exploitation by adults, and the environment in which they operate is often infested by drug abuse. Migrant children are often forced to pay money for very little service, such as going to the bathroom or sleeping in front of shops. This need for money compels many migrant children in Ghana to work illegally as well as legally. Studies have shown that many independent migrant children eventually go back home, though exact numbers are unavailable (GSS, 2014).
Refugees and Asylum Seekers
Refugees in Ghana
The numbers of refugees and asylum seekers vary depending on the source. According to UNDESA, there are 13,469 refugees and asylum seekers in Ghana in 2019 (estimated). This is 2.9% of the total international immigration stock. In 2015, this number was 19,265, and it was 4.6% of the total international immigration stock. The annual rate of change between 2015 and 2019 is -8.9. UNICEF states there were 12,000 refugees and 1,000 asylum seekers in Ghana in 2018, of which 36% were under 18. According to UNHCR, there were 11,865 refugees and 1,371 asylum seekers at the end of 2016, 12,156 refugees and 1,313 asylum seekers at the end of 2017 and 11,899 refugees and 1,317 asylum seekers in Ghana at the end of 2018. This suggests that there was no extreme inflow in the last few years. Most of the refugees are from Ivory Coast, because of the Second Ivoirian Civil War. After that, refugees from Togo, Liberia, Sudan and the Syrian Arab Republic comprise most of the refugee stock (UNHCR, 2019).
. In 1993, when Ghana was receiving the first large influx of refugees, Ghana had 150,000 refugees. Because of this, the government passed legislation creating a Refugee Board to deal with refugee policy. In practice, UNHCR and private citizen groups provide material support to refugee groups (Migration Policy Institute, 2006). According to an article on the UNHCR website, Ghana has a very progressive legislation concerning refugees and asylum seekers. It allows privileges to all citizens in terms of supportive enabling environment and access to services, and this includes asylum seekers and refugees. Refugees have a choice of location to live, free movement, establishing a livelihood, and acquiring travel documents (Folley, 2019).
Refugees from Ghana
The majority of Ghanaian refugees fled the country in the 1980’s because of politically motivated executions, disappearances, imprisonment without trial, confiscation of property, and public flogging. Between 1982 and 1991, the UNHCR registered 97,5636 asylum applications from Ghana (Migration Policy Institute, 2006). According to UNHCR, there is a total of 18,000 refugees and 12,500 asylum seekers from Ghana currently abroad, but there is no information available on how many leave every year. However, the number of Ghanaian asylum seekers and refugees declined from 15,879 in 2003 to 6,717 in 2007, meaning that it is currently not a serious issue in Ghana (IOM, 2009). In 2009, out of the total number of Ghanaian refugees most were residing in Togo. In the year 2007, however, most Ghanaian asylum applications were in Israel, South Africa, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom. UNICEF states that 63% of refugees was under 18. This would suggest that relatively many children have to flee Ghana.
Emigration
According to UNDESA, the total number of international emigrants from Ghana is 970,600 in 2019 (estimate). The estimated number in 2015 was 905,852, meaning that the annual rate of Ghanaians leaving the country is still rising. In 2015, the main countries of destination for Ghanaian emigrants were Nigeria (222,377), The United States of America (161,082), the United Kingdom (124,093) and Ivory Coast (107,490). According to an article in the UN’s magazine Africa Renewal, youth unemployment is a big reason for emigration out of Ghana. Furthermore, youth unemployment is a threat to peace and stability, as young unemployed people are vulnerable to exploitation (Dovi, 2016-2017).
Labour Migration/Brain Drain
72.6% of the international migrant stock in Ghana is of working age (UNDESA, 2019). Data showing the unemployment rate of foreign-born people in Ghana is unavailable.
Since Ghana has become a country of emigration, many skilled professionals have left. Ghana has one of the highest emigration rates for the highly skilled in Western Africa (46%), and the average skill level of emigrants from Ghana is relatively high (IOM, 2009). The concern therefore is that mass emigration has made the country scarce of human capital – which is much needed in developing countries. Estimates show that more than 56% of doctors and 24% of nurses that have been trained in Ghana are working abroad. Reasons for leaving include low salaries, poor long-term career prospects and bleak prospects of saving enough for retirement. Especially the health care sector is experiencing severe brain drain, to such an extent that the government has implemented some incentives for health care professionals to stay and work in Ghana. However, these incentives have not managed to curb the working flight (Migration Policy Institute, 2006).
Unauthorised Migration/Trafficking/Smuggling
According to IOM (2009), Ghana is a source, transit and destination country for trafficking women and children, for the purpose of sexual exploitation and domestic and commercial labour. According to the UNODC global report on trafficking (2018), forced labour was the most commonly detected form of exploitation in Sub-Saharan Africa (63%). In 2019, CTDC recognized 41.9% women amongst trafficking victims in Ghana, and 43.5% women amongst trafficked victims with Ghanaian citizenship. Furthermore, 88.3% of victims with a Ghanaian citizenship were children, and 93.1% of trafficking victims found in Ghana were children. Children are therefore by far the biggest group to be trafficked from and into Ghana, also internally. A big challenge is the internal trafficking from children from their home villages towards fisheries at Lake Volta (IOM, 2019b).
Most people from West Africa use smuggling networks to travel to North Africa, often Libya or Algeria, to settle there or move on to Europe. It can be assumed that among them are also Ghanaians. A minimum of 500 migrants die every year in the Sahara Desert, but it is very likely that in reality this is a much higher number (UNODC, 2018).
In principle, the ECOWAS region, of which Ghana is a member, is an area of free movement. According to the 1979 Protocol on the Free Movement of Persons, Residence and Establishment, ECOWAS nationals should be able to move freely within the region with a valid travel document and an international health certificate. It is when the documents are missing, for example, that smugglers come into play to help illegally trespass borders (UNODC, 2018).
Ghana has a Human Trafficking Act, which was enacted in 2005. It comprises three components of counter-trafficking: prevention of human trafficking, protection of trafficked persons and prosecution of traffickers (Sertich & Heemskerk, 2011). According to Sertich & Heemskerk (2011), two attorneys who have researched the implementation of he Ghanaian Human Trafficking Act, state that the government has been successful in implementing the Act’s preventive strategies, and has demonstrated the ability to prosecute both domestic and international human trafficking cases. The Ghanaian government has however not managed the protective duties mandated by the Act, particularly in providing shelter for trafficked persons.
Remittances
According to the World Bank, Ghana received 2,980 million USD in 2016, 3,536 billion USD in 2017, 3,803 billion USD in 2018 (5,8% of the national GDP) and 3,723 billion USD in 2019, which is 5.5% of the national GDP (World Bank, 2019). This means there has been a slight increase in last years. Remittances outflow from Ghana in 2017 was at a value of 1.1 billion USD, and 2.9 billion USD in 2016 (World Bank, 2019), suggesting a decrease.
According to IOM (2009), children are the main recipients of remittances from abroad. Siblings from the second-largest group of recipients of remittances. A study by IOM also finds that in 2016, household incomes nearly doubled because of remittances (IOM, 2017). Remittances to Ghana possibly grew in the last years, because of stronger economies in high-income countries, and higher oil prices benefitting regional economies (World Bank, 2018).
Returns and Returnees
Since the mid-1990s, there has been some evidence of return migration to Ghana. This has been attributed partly to the improvement in the Ghanaian economy vis-à-vis the economies of the neighbouring countries that once attracted Ghanaians as well as restrictions on Ghanaians travelling abroad (for instance, those travelling to the EU countries) and repatriation of those without valid documents (GSS, 2014). According to IOM, 307 Ghanaians returned to Ghana in 2018, and 2 were returned from Ghana to their countries of origin (though both only account for voluntary returns aided by IOM, and not forced or unaided returns).
A Non-Resident Ghanaians Secretariat (NRGS) was instituted in 2003 to promote further links with Ghanaians living abroad and to encourage return (Migration Policy Institute, 2006). Data would suggest, however, that it is difficult for the Ghanaian government and for development organisations to cause a rise in returnees to Ghana (Migration Policy Institute, 2006).
In 2001, 55% (out of 152 interviewed Ghanaian returnees) were self-employed upon return, and most of them also employed other Ghanaians, suggesting that return emigration creates jobs (Migration Policy Institute, 2006).
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) received a mandate in December 2016 to help rescue vulnerable migrants from Ghana stranded en route to Europe. The plan was to bring 650 men and women home within three years. In October 2019, OM met – and exceeded – that initial target, bringing home its 1001st Ghanaian beneficiary as part of a successful run that exceeded all parties’ expectations (IOM, 2019a).
International and Civil Society Organizations
IOM has been in Ghana since 1987 and has aided the government of Ghana in its efforts to manage migration through a variety of projects and programmes. IOM activities are implemented in every region in Ghana. IOM has been involved in migrant resettlement, family reunification, migration policy development, labour migration, combatting human trafficking, assisted voluntary returns, border management, information campaigns and emergency response.
UHNCR has been in Ghana since 1994, when Ghana was experiencing its first major influx of refugees since its return to a democratic government. UNHCR helps coordinate the protection and provision of humanitarian assistance to refugees in Ghana. It works closely with the Ghana Refugee Board.
Ghana is involved in the promotion of dialogue and cooperation on international migration at the regional level through the Migration Dialogue in West Africa (MIDWA) and the Mediterranean Transit Migration Dialogue (MTM) (IOM, 2018).
Research and Counselling Foundation for African Migrants (RECFAM) was established in 2004 in Ghana and conducts quantitative and qualitative research on the motivating factors underpinning development, women/children empowerment, irregular migration, human trafficking, child abuse, etcetera. It also develops pragmatic sustainable approaches to counter these issues.
The UNFPA, UNDP, ILO, the European Commission, the World Bank provide support for capacity building through equipment, training, and sharing of information (IOM, 2009).
Note on data
“Although the Ghana Immigration Service (GIS) regularly collects data on migration, there are no publicly available data sets beyond 2008; data collection from 2003 to 2017 are available only by formal request” (IOM, 2018, p.3).
References
Anarfi, J. K., Kwankye, S. O., Ababio, E.O. & Tiemoko, R. (2010). Migration from and to Ghana: A
Background Paper. Working Paper C4. Issued by the Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty.
Bump, M. (2006, March 1). Ghana: Searching for Opportunities at Home and Abroad. Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved from: https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/ghana-searching-opportunities-home-and-abroad
CTDC (2019). CTDC Global dataset. Retrieved from: https://www.ctdatacollaborative.org/map
Dovi, E. (2016-2017). Young Ghanaians risk all for “better” life. Africa Renewal.
Folley, P. (2019, June 20). Ghana’s progressive asylum system hailed as the country joins the rest of the world to mark World Refugee Day. UNHCR Ghana. Retrieved from: http://www.unhcr-ghana.org/ghanas-progressive-asylum-system-hailed-as-the-country-joins-the-rest-of-the-world-to-mark-world-refugee-day/
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IOM (2018). Migration Governance Snapshot: The Republic of Ghana. Migration Data Portal. Retrieved from: https://migrationdataportal.org/overviews/mgi/ghana#2
IOM (2019a). IOM Assists over 1000 Ghanaians to return from Libya and Niger. Retrieved from: https://www.iom.int/news/iom-assists-over-1000-ghanaians-return-libya-and-niger
IOM (2019b). Support Trafficked Children in Ghana. Retrieved from: https://www.iom.int/support-trafficked-children-ghana
Quartey, P. (2009). Migration in Ghana: a country profile 2009. International Organisation for Migration (IOM).
Sertich, M. & Heemskerk, M. (2011). Ghana’s Human Trafficking Act: Successes and Shortcomings in Six Years of Implementation. Human Rights Brief, 19(1), 2-7.
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