GEOGRAPHICAL INFO
Population: 112,078,730 (UN, 2019)
Capital city: Addis Ababa
Largest cities: Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, Mek’ele, Gondor
Independence from Italy: oldest independent country in Africa and one of the oldest in the world - at least 2,000 years (can be traced to the Aksumite Kingdom, which coalesced in the first century B.C.). Short-lived Italian occupation from 1936-1941.
Government structure: Federal Parliamentary Republic under the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The Prime Minister, chosen by the Parliament, is the head of government and holds executive power. The current Prime Minister is Abiy Ahmed (since 2 April 2018). The President is elected to a six-year term by the House of Representatives. The current President is Sahle-Work Zewde (since 25 October 2018).
The country is divided into nine ethnically-based administrative regions and two self-governing administrations; the capital city Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. The regions are Adis Abeba* (Addis Ababa), Afar, Amara (Amhara), Binshangul Gumuz, Dire Dawa*, Gambela Hizboch (Gambela Peoples), Hareri Hizb (Harari People), Oromiya (Oromia), Sumale (Somali), Tigray, Ye Debub Biheroch Bihereseboch na Hizboch (Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples).
Economic activities: Although over 70% of the population works in agriculture, the economy relies more heavily on the service industry, especially the state-run Ethiopian Airlines, and exports of coffee, gold, sesame, khat, livestock, and horticulture products. Increasing Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and international presence in Ethiopia is contributing to manufacturing and state-run infrastructure projects such as power production and distribution, roads, rails, airports, and industrial parks.
Transports: Ethiopia’s road network has improved greatly in recent years due to major government investment in improving and expanding the road network alongside the construction of a rail network to replace the now defunct Franco-Ethiopian railway. The country is connected primarily by sealed and dirt roads, with all-weather roads comprising about 37% of the country’s required road network (International Trade Administration Ethiopia, 2019). 90-95% of Ethiopia’s trade goes through the port of Djibouti, a distance of 750km that previously required up to three days to cover by truck and now takes just 12 hours on the Chinese-funded standard gauge railway (SGR) that was inaugurated on 1 January 2018 (Omondi, 2019). Reopened diplomatic relations with Eritrea renew the possibility of expanded port and trade access. Travel is primarily conducted by mini bus, taxi, and Bajajs (motorised rickshaws) within cities, and by bus, minibus, car, or domestic flight between cities.
Environmental issues: Sporadic civil unrest and communications disruptions. Border areas with surrounding countries subject to armed conflict and terrorism.
Ethnic groups: Oromo 34.4%, Amhara (Amara) 27%, Somali (Somalie) 6.2%, Tigray (Tigrinya) 6.1%, Sidama 4%, Gurage 2.5%, Welaita 2.3%, Hadiya 1.7%, Afar (Affar) 1.7%, Gamo 1.5%, Gedeo 1.3%, Silte 1.3%, Kefficho 1.2%, other 8.8% (2007 est.)
Official languages: Oromo (official working language in the State of Oromiya) 33.8%, Amharic (official national language) 29.3%, Somali (official working language of the State of Sumale) 6.2%, Tigrigna (Tigrinya) (official working language of the State of Tigray) 5.9%, Sidamo 4%, Wolaytta 2.2%, Gurage 2%, Afar (official working language of the State of Afar) 1.7%, Hadiyya 1.7%, Gamo 1.5%, Gedeo 1.3%, Opuuo 1.2%, Kafa 1.1%, other 8.1%, English (major foreign language taught in schools), Arabic (2007 est.).
Religions: Ethiopian Orthodox 43.5%, Muslim 33.9%, Protestant 18.5%, traditional 2.7%, Catholic 0.7%, other 0.6% (2007 est.)
Social issues: Human rights violations have decreased under Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, who came into power in April 2018. Protests against government policies security force violence were largely quelled when the government released thousands of political prisoners from detention, lifted internet restrictions, committed to legal reforms, and reopened diplomatic relations with neighboring Eritrea. Internal displacement and interethnic conflicts remain an issue, especially along the Somalia border (Human Rights Watch, 2019). While Ethiopia has one of the lowest income inequalities in the world, it also struggles with widespread poverty (World Bank Group, 2015).
Unrest has continued in late 2019 in Ethiopia due to: 1) protests against PM Abiy due to claims by ethnic Oromo activist that the PM had tried to remove his security detail, leaving 78 dead; 2) intercommunal attacks primarily in the southern and western parts of the country; and 3) tension between Ethiopia and Egypt over the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on Blue Nile. In Afar region in east, ethnic Somali raiders 11-12 Oct reportedly killed sixteen ethnic Afar in Afambo woreda (Crisis Watch, 2019).
Neighboring countries: Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan, Sudan
Historical Background
Ethiopia is the continent’s oldest independent country and the second most populous, with over 100 million people. Except for a brief period under Italy’s Mussolini, the country has always maintained its independence. Ethiopia is a landlocked country largely dependent on its neighbor Djibouti for port access. It is a majority Christian country and is home to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. While Ethiopia has one of the lowest inequality ratios in the world, it also has one of the highest rates of poverty. Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, who came to power in 2018, has made impressive strides in fostering a more open and free political and media environment and recently won the Nobel Peace Prize for his work ending the conflict with Eritrea. Ethiopia’s greatest challenges currently are continuing to lift the population out of poverty through sustained economic growth, creating political stability, and increasing competition in and the size of the private sector (BBC Monitoring Group, 2019).
Ethiopia has experienced migration flows throughout history as a destination, departure, and transit country and is a primary destination in East Africa. As a landlocked country bordering every other country in the Horn of Africa, it is a logical transit and destination for migrants.
Throughout history, international migration out of Ethiopia was not very common. It started growing only a little in the 20th century, when Ethiopians started moving abroad to study at Western universities and complete higher education. In 1974, a lot changed when a military junta overthrew the Imperial Rule, which lead to many Ethiopians becoming internally displaced or moving to refugee camps in neighbouring countries. Many Western countries offered resettlement to the Ethiopians in camps (Terrazas, 2007). The national capital, Addis Ababa, has also been a popular destination for internal migrants fleeing ethnic violence, and the city has grown from a population of 1.4 million in 1984 to an estimated population of more than 3.5 million in 2000 (Terrazas, 2007).
Ethiopia and Uganda are currently estimated to host the largest volume of international migrants in the East Africa region (encompassing 18 countries) with 1.2 million and 1.7 million respectively 2018 (UNHCR, 2019). Major migration push factors include poverty, conflict, and environmental crises (e.g. droughts and floods), as well as conflict in South Sudan, economic deprivation and open-ended military service in Eritrea, and conflict and conflict-induced food insecurity in Somalia (Abebe, 2018). Ethiopia’s 2018 peace agreement with Eritrea preceded a spike in migration from Eritrea into Ethiopia (European Commission, 2019).
Ethiopia is the second most populous country in Africa and, though it has one of the fastest growing economies, is also one of the poorest with a per capita income of $790. Ethiopia’s economy experienced strong growth averaging 9.9% a year from 2007/08 to 2017/18, compared to a regional average of 5.4%. The country is aiming to reach middle-income status as a country by 2025 (World Bank Group, 2019). Migration in Ethiopia is impacted alternately by the attraction of the country’s fast and steady economic growth on the one hand and spikes in intercommunal violence, political protests, and environmental disasters on the other (Migration Data Portal, 2019).
Migration Policies
Ethiopia is one of the first countries to implement the Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF) developed out of the Summit on Refugees and Migrants hosted by the United Nations General Assembly in September 2016. The country is now widely considered a leading example for comprehensive and robust refugee protection policies (Abebe, 2018).
In September 2016, Ethiopia committed to nine pledges at the Summit on Refugees and Migrants hosted by the United Nations General Assembly. The summit outlined the main points of the Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF) and aims to support both refugee and host community populations (UNHCR). Ethiopia committed to providing work permits to qualifying refugees, facilitating local integration, and reserving a small percentage of jobs within the industrial sector for refugees, commitments which have been followed through on in their 2019 amended Refugee Proclamation. National consultations with a diverse range of actors are ongoing in order to plan and facilitate implementation of Ethiopia’s nine pledges (UNHCR).
Implementation to date includes the initiation in October 2017 of civil registration of refugees, including birth, marriage, divorce, and death for new refugees as well as retroactive registration access for approximately 70,000 refugee children born in the country in the past 10 years. Additionally, a countrywide refugee registration infrastructure was launched in 2017 to consolidate information on refugees’ education and professional skills and family profiles. This Biometric Information Management System will enable refugees to more easily access CRRF opportunities, such as jobs created through Ethiopia’s $500 million worth of new industrial parks funded through the European Union (EU). 30% of these jobs are open to refugees (UNHCR).
Ethiopia has numerous policies and proclamations directly addressing migrants and refugees. The Immigration Proclamation No. 354/2003 of 2003 outlines requirements for entry into and departure from Ethiopia, including travel documents, visas, registration, and residence permits (National Legislative Bodies, 2003). The Security, Immigration and Refugee Affair Authority Establishment Proclamation No 6/1995 establishes an authority to “execute policies and laws on state and public security, immigration nationality and refugees” (National Legislative Bodies, 1995).
In 2019, Ethiopia passed The Refugees Proclamation No. 1110/2019, which repeals the Refugee Proclamation No. 409 of 2004, and provides a more comprehensive outline of protection and assistance provided to refugees in Ethiopia (National Legislative Bodies, 2019). It stipulates freedom of movement, the right to work, access to social services, and local integration. The new law allows refugees to obtain work permits, access primary education, obtain drivers’ licenses, legally register life events such as births and marriages and opens up access to national financial services, such as banking (UNHCR, 2019b). The UNHCR calls it “one of the most progressive refugee policies in Africa.” Filippo Grandi, UN High Commissioner for Refugees, said that “the passage of this historic law represents a significant milestone in Ethiopia’s long history of welcoming and hosting refugees from across the region for decades,” adding that “By allowing refugees the opportunity to be better integrated into society, Ethiopia is not only upholding its international refugee law obligations, but is serving as a model for other refugee hosting nations around the world” (UNHCR, 2019a).
Ethiopia’s refugee policy requires refugees to live in camps, with the exception of a small number of people who are allowed to stay in urban centres due to special considerations. Since 2010, many more have been given the option of living outside of the refugee camps as part of the government’s Out of Camp Policy (Abebe, 2018).
Ethiopia is also signatory to:
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The OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa
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The UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951 (ratified 1969)
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The UN Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1967 (ratified 1969)
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The UN Human Trafficking Protocol, 2000, (ratified 2012)
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The UN Migrant Smuggling Protocol, 2000 (ratified 2012)
Last year, Ethiopia lifted a five year ban on Ethiopian migrants seeking work abroad in the Gulf region. Instituted to protect against exploitation, it put Ethiopian migrants at greater risk of trafficking and exploitation as economic desperation pushed people to ignore the ban and travel overseas anyway (AFP, 2018). The new legislation establishes regulations for recruitment agencies including minimum age and education requirements and training for migrant workers before departure (Freitag, 2019).
Additional related policies are the Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, the Proclamation to Regulate the Issuance of Travel Documents and Visas, and Registration of Foreigners in Ethiopia (1969), the Issuance of Travel Documents and Visas Regulations (1971), the Security, Immigration and Refugee Affairs Authority Establishment Proclamation (1995), the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants Proclamation (2015) and the Overseas Proclamation (2016).
Governmental Institutions
The primary body responsible for handling migration issues is the Department for Immgration and Nationality Affairs. The Agency for Refugees & Returnees Affair (ARRA) “hosts asylum-seekers seeking a safe-haven in Ethiopia as a result of man-made or natural disasters. The agency creates platforms that enable and assist refugees in escaping poverty by finding durable solutions and strengthening people-to-people relations” (ARRA, 2020). The agency is also responsible for receiving Ethiopian refugees. The Security Immigration and Refugee Affairs Authority (SIRAA) executes policies and laws on state and public security, immigration nationality and refugees. The lead coordinator for referring trafficking victims to services is the National Anti-Trafficking Council and Task Force, in coordination with other government agencies. The Diaspora Engagement Affairs Geneal Directorate is charged with coordinating diaspora issues at the national and regional level. Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia is designated to provide all surveys and censuses for that country used to monitor economic and social growth, including data collection and reports on refugees in the country.
Internal Migration
Internal migration is increasing rapidly across Africa, with more than half of all Africans expected to live in urban settings by 2050 (AfDB, OECD & UNDP, 2016). Additionally, more than half of Africa’s population is under 19 years old, meaning that internal migration is comprised predominantly of youths. In the Horn of Africa and in Ethiopia specifically, government attention to facilitating safe internal migration, predominantly rural to urban, is crucial to building inclusive and resilient cities. Factors driving internal migration include: climate change, job and education opportunities, and evolving desires of young people (AfDB, OECD & UNDP, 2016). Additional push factors include overpopulation, famine, poverty, land scarcity, governmental agricultural policies, and lack of agricultural resources (Ezra & Kiros, 2001). The two most important factors, however, are age and education. The majority of migrants are young and have more education (Bundervoet, 2017).
Research published in 2017 based on research in Southern Ethiopia revealed that 76.2% of migrants left home between the ages of 16 and 25, 48% of migrants were attending junior education level at the time of departure, and 80% were unmarried. The primary reasons for rural-urban migration were found to be: better job opportunities (44%), rural poverty (26%), further education (10%), start a business (8%), freedom from cultural restrictions (8%), and better urban services (4%) (Eshetu, & Mohammed (2017).
Research on internal migration remains limited, with the most recent comprehensive numbers dating from the 2013 Labour Force Survey (LFS). In the five years prior to the 2013 LFS, about 6.5% of the Ethiopian adult population moved zone of residence, marginally higher than the share in 1999 (5.7%). Rural migration remained limited as of 2013, with only 3.5% of the total adult population moving zones between 2008 and 2013. Of the total migrant population, the majority are moving from rural to urban settings. From 2008 and 2013, 34% of migrant pathways were rural to urban while 25% was intra-urban and 23% was intra-rural. These numbers are reflected in the proportion of migrants in urban areas; in 2013, 17% of urban dwellers were recent migrants (within the previous five years) and 55.4% were all-time migrants. While migrants comprise a greater proportion of the total population in smaller cities, the largest volume of rural-urban migrants are headed for Addis Ababa (39% of all rural-urban migrants) (Bundervoet, 2017).
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)
Ethiopia has one of the largest newly displaced populations in the world in 2018, which more than doubled from 1,078,400 at the beginning of 2018 to a total of 2.6 million by the end of the year. Most displaced persons from Ethiopia are internally displaced (98%), though some are also refugee or asylum seekers abroad. This sudden spike in displacement is due to inter-communal violence in southern and western Ethiopia, specifically the West Guji and Gedeo zones along the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region (SNNPR) and Oromia Region border with the Somali Region. While displacement due to local conflict over pasture and water rights is not new, the scale of conflict and resulting displacement grew dramatically in the past year (UNHCR, 2019c).
Displacement has a significant effect on people’s lives and livelihoods. IDPs and IDP returnees are, amongst others, exposed to protection risks, are disrupted in their education and vocational training, and lack sustainable livelihood means. There are 3.19 million IDPs and IDP returnees in need of assistance, out of which 30 per cent are in acute need. Most of the IDPs and IDP returnees are in Oromia (47 per cent), Somali (32 per cent) and SNNP (13 per cent) regions. Most severe areas are in Oromia and Somali regions (UNICEF, 2018).
Immigration
The net migration rate in Ethiopia estimated as of 2017 is -0.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (MPI). The majority of migrants in Ethiopia come from Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, however other migrants also come from Rwanda, Burundi, Angola, Liberia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Uganda, South Africa, and Yemen (UNDESA; Terrazas, 2007). The total number of international migrants in Ethiopia is 1,253,100 according to research by the United Nations, which accounts for 1.1% of the population (UNDESA).
Gender/Female Migration
49% of international migrants in Ethiopia are women as of 2019 according to UNDESA. In regards to internal migration, a study on migration in southern Ethiopia revealed that female migrants tend to move shorter distances while men are more likely to venture farther from their place of birth, which reflects the Ravenstein’s laws of migration. The mean distance traveled by men in the study was 80.50 kilometers, and for women it was only 63.08 kilometers (Eshetu & Mohammed, 2017).
Of Ethiopian migrants emigrating out of the country, 2017 ILO research reports a majority of regular migrants (86%) are women looking for employment opportunities, primarily as domestic workers in the Middle East. 100% of Ethiopian migrant workers in Oman report their work as housemaids, while this number is 81.8% of migrants in Lebanon and 75.5% of those in Kuwait (IOM, 2017).
From 2008-2013, a reported 297,512 female domestic workers from Ethiopia’s three key regions
of origin – Amhara, Addis Ababa and Oromia – were legally working in the Middle East. This number may be double in reality, however, due to the volume of migrants using irregular channels to evade the government’s ban on labour migration to the Middle East. The ban was enacted to curb labour exploitation after Saudia Arabia expelled over 100,000 Ethiopians from Saudi Arabia in 2013 (GAATW, 2019). Around the time of the ban, an estimated 1,000 Ethiopian women were leaving the country daily in search of employment abroad, predominantly in Saudi Arabia. Reports of exploitation from employers including passport confiscation and under payment as well as physical, sexual, and emotional exploitation (Freitag, 2019).
Children
48.5% of international migrants in 2019 were age 0-19 years. The remaining migrants were 20-64 (50.2%) and 65+ (1.3%) (UNDESA). Children migrants are extremely vulnerable to trafficking and other forms of exploitation. Unaccompanied minors, especially if returning from abroad or having survived exploitation, often require shelter, psychosocial support, family tracing and reunification, and reintegration into their communities of origin (IOM, 2019b).
In a 2018 study by the Mixed Migration Centre’s Mixed Migration Monitoring Mechanism Initiative (4Mi)88 with UNICEF, over 870 children (455 girls and 415 boys) between the ages of 13 and 17 were interviewed to better understand children on the move. The children came from a variety of countries, including Angola, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. About half of the children who participated in the survey noted their primary reason for leaving home was violence and general insecurity, followed by personal/family reasons, economic reasons, a lack of freedom and/or discrimination in their country of origin, and a lack of social services. Children reported that they chose destinations where they thought they would have better chances of getting a job and sending remittances home, as well as where there would be improved general security and opportunities to access better education, to reunite with family and to access better medical care (IOM, 2019a).
In regards to internal rural to urban migration, research published in 2009 found that youth from 10 and 19 years of age primarily left home for educational opportunities (44.9% of boys and 51.4% of girls), followed by work opportunities (28.6% of boys and 32.4% of girls) and escaping an early marriage (22.7% of girls). Children often embark on their journey with a relative or family friend, headed for family or friends in the city who are supposed to exchange housing for education for the children. After migration, however, 13% of girls and 21% of boys do not attend school, and 19% of females who migrated for work were not employed (Fransen & Kuschminder, 2009). The work opportunities for minors in the city are limited to informal work, primarily domestic labor. Jobs as a bar girl are a common entry point into commercial sexual exploitation of girls (Fransen & Kuschminder, 2009).
Refugees and Asylum Seekers
Hosted in the Country
Ethiopia is the second largest refugee-hosting country on the continent after Uganda and the ninth largest in the world with a total of 903,226 refugees and asylum seekers in 2018 (UNHCR, 2019c). Ethiopia is also the largest host of Somali refugees and Eritrean refugees with 257,200 and 174,000 respectively at the end of 2018 as well as a major host for Sudanese refugees with 44,000 at the end of 2018. Ethiopia is the second biggest destination after Sudan for South Sudanese refugees, hosting a total of 422,100 (UNHCR, 2019c).
Ethiopia reported 42,100 new refugees in 2018, mainly from South Sudan (25,400), Eritrea (14,600), Sudan (1,200) and Somalia (800) (UNHCR, 2019c). As of 2018, 133,300 asylum seekers were awaiting decisions in Ethiopia (UNHCR, 2019c). Most refugees are housed in 26 refugee camps across the country, though the government since 2010 has been exploring an ‘out-of-camp’ policy which would allow refugees to live in other locations (Abebe, 2018a). Children under 18 account for 48% of refugees in the camps in the Northern part of Ethiopia (Abebe, 2018b).
From the Country
At the end of 2017, there were 87,400 Ethiopian refugees (0.1% of the population). Refugees headed primarily for Kenya (17,873), South Africa (17,562), the United States (9,987), Yemen (6,205), and South Sudan (4,555) (European Commission, 2019). In total, there are an estimated 6,000 Ethiopian refugees living in Sudan and 40,200 in South Sudan (UNHCR, 2019c).
Emigration
Migration out of Ethiopia was minimal until the revolution of 1974 that installed the Derg, a Marxist military regime. Previously, only small numbers of political elite left the country in order to study in the West and return home to guaranteed positions of power and privilege. After 1974, a refugee crisis emerged as outflows due to political persecution and economic desperation spiked, only falling after the end of the Derg in 1991 and finally reaching a net migration rate of zero by 2007 (Terrazas, 2007). The net migration rate in Ethiopia estimated as of 2017 is -0.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (MPI).
At the end of 2017, there were 800,900 (.8% of the population) Ethiopian migrants outside of the country. Migrants predominantly travel to the United States (217,913), Saudi Arabia (148,753), Israel (78,489), Sudan (71,631), and Kenya (36,692) (European Commission, 2019).
There are four key migration routes from Ethiopia: the Eastern Route, the Northern or Central Mediterranean Route, the Sinai Route, as well as the Southern Route. The Eastern Route goes from the East and Horn of Africa through Yemen to the Gulf Countries, especially Saudi Arabia. The Northern Route (also known as the ‘Central Mediterranean Route’) takes migrants from the East and Horn of Africa to Europe across the Mediterranean Sea, mainly departing from Libya and headed for Italy. The Southern Route (through Kenya towards South Africa) connects the East and Horn of Africa to South Africa. The Sinai Route, the least common now, runs from the East and Horn of Africa through Sudan and Egypt into Israel. The Eastern and Southern routes are most common (Marchard, Reinold & Silva, 2017).
From January to December 2018, data from IOM reveals that 59.93% of Ethiopian migrants were moving within the Horn of Africa, 20.37% were headed for the Eastern Route, 14.21% the Northern Route, 4.94% the Southern Route, and .55% other routes. The primary challenges migrants reported facing on these routes were ‘hunger and thirst,’ followed by ‘sickness’ and ‘financial issues’ (DTM, 2018).
In 2013, the government banned migration to Saudi Arabia to protect against labor exploitation. The ban was lifted in 2018 (Freitag, 2019).
Labour Migration/Brain Drain
Ethiopia suffers greatly from ‘brain drain,’ as opportunities for highly skilled and educated Ethiopians remain limited at home. International migrants with tertiary education accounted for 6,4 thousand in 2017 (UNESCO, 2017). For example, the out-migration of Ethiopian medical staff in 2009 was estimated at 25.6%. High rates of poverty and low levels of education make it difficult for the country to build and retain a sizeable skilled workforce or even to create sufficiently attractive opportunities to entice diaspora to return (Fransen & Kuschminder, 2009).
Saudi Arabia remains the primary destination for irregular migrants, representing 80-90 percent of Ethiopian labor migration; reportedly, more than 200,000 Ethiopians reside there. Illegal border crossings into Kenya have increased, with victims destined for South Africa to connect to onward flights to Ecuador with a final destination of the United States or Canada. The least common route is through Sudan and Libya with the hope of crossing the Mediterranean and ultimately reaching Europe. An international organization reported an uptick in the number of minors traveling along the eastern migration route towards Yemen, hoping to reach Saudi Arabia. Approximately 100,000 Ethiopians perennially travel illegally to Saudi Arabia for work; this route is treacherous due to the sea journey, and civil war and overall lawlessness in Yemen. Typically in past years, young men and women migrate northwest via Sudan aiming for Europe, while young women tend to travel through Eritrea or Djibouti to secure domestic work in Saudi Arabia (United States Department of State, 2019).
From the international migrant stock currently residing in Ethiopia, 50,2% is of working age (20-64) (UNDESA, 2019).
Unauthorised Migration/Trafficking, Smuggling
Due to the difficulty of migration routes from the Horn of Africa, many migrants turn to smugglers to facilitate the journey. Introductions are often made through local brokers, returnees, relatives, and/or friends. Working with a smuggler puts migrants in positions highly vulnerable to exploitation, as brokers and agents can make false promises and give limited information or, in worse cases, exploit or traffic migrants. According to an ILO (2017) study on 1,450 potential migrants/migrants, more than 30% of respondents stated that they received no information regarding the nature of the job and 54% had not received any information about their employer (ILO, 2017).
According to CTDC, there were 303 identified Ethiopian victims of trafficking. Traffickers operate most commonly in two contexts: targeting parents of children in rural areas to provide them with housing and education in urban centers in exchange for domestic work and targeting migrants headed for the Gulf States for labor, often domestic work. In both situations, victims are vulnerable to labor, sexual, and other forms of exploitation. Girls from Ethiopia’s impoverished rural areas are exploited in domestic servitude and commercial sex within the country, while boys are subjected to forced labor in traditional weaving, construction, agriculture, and street vending (United States Deparment of State, 2019).
Many Ethiopian women working in domestic service in the Middle East face severe abuses, including physical and sexual assault, denial of salary, sleep deprivation, passport confiscation, and confinement. Ethiopian women who migrate for work or flee abusive employers in the Middle East are also vulnerable to sex trafficking. Ethiopian men and boys migrate to the Gulf states and other African nations, where traffickers subject some to forced labor.
Local NGOs assess that the number of internal trafficking victims exceeds that of external trafficking, particularly children exploited in commercial sex and domestic servitude. Most traffickers are small local operators, often from the victims’ own communities, but that well-structured, hierarchical, organized crime groups are also responsible (United States Department of State, 2019).
Remittances
Remittances have comprised 1-1.1% of the country’s GDP from 2014-2017 with the total value increasing proportionally alongside the GDP from 470 million in 2014 to 721.9 million Euros in 2017 (Ursa et al., 2019). Because Ethiopia lacks a robust bank infrastructure and formal remittance service providers, informal remittances are estimated to be extremely high (Marchand, Reinold & Silva, 2017).
Returns and Returnees
Ethiopian returnees from Africa’s Eastern migratory route are coming back to their country at a rate of about 1,000 migrants per month, IOM reported in October 2019. From January to October 2019, IOM Ethiopia assisted 9,200 returnees. This represents close to a twofold increase compared to 2018, when 5,382 returnees were assisted by IOM (IOM, 2019c).
According to IOM, between May 2017 and July 2019, some 21,657 Ethiopian minors returned to Ethiopia from Saudi Arabia, comprising ~8% of the total number of returnees from Saudi Arabia to the Horn of Africa. In May and June 2019, IOM aided the repatriation of almost 3,000 Ethiopian migrants detained in Yemen, including 1,236 unaccompanied children (IOM, 2019b).
After previously cracking down on illegal labor migration and expelling Ethiopians from the country, Saudi Arabia offered an amnesty period from March to November 2017 to allow irregular migrants to voluntarily leave the country. During this time, a reported 100,000 migrants returned to Ethiopia (United States Department of State, 2019).
International and Civil Society Organizations
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Catholic Relief Service (CRS): https://www.crs.org/our-work-overseas/where-we-work/ethiopia
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Danish Refugee Council (DRC): https://drc.ngo/where-we-work/east-africa/ethiopia
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GOAL Ethiopia: https://www.goalglobal.org/countries/ethiopia/
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Intergovernmental Authority on Development: https://igad.int/
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IOM Ethiopia: https://ethiopia.iom.int/
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Jesuit Refugee Service: https://jrs.net/en/country/ethiopia/
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Norwegian Refugee Council: https://www.nrc.no/countries/africa/ethiopia/
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Overseas Development Institute (ODI): https://www.odi.org/country/ethiopia
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Save the Children: https://ethiopia.savethechildren.net/
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