Egypt

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Historically, Egypt was mostly an immigration destination and not an emigration country. Egyptians mostly did not want to leave the country. Egypt was one of the principal civilizations of the ancient Middle East and was the site of one of the world’s earliest urban and literate societies. This attracted many immigrants. However, after the mid-1950s, Egyptians increasingly sought to leave the country. The changing socio-economic and political dynamics informed different policies that influenced migration in Egypt. According to Dessouki (1982), these policies range from prohibition and regulation to encouragement. Zohry (2003) identified several phases of migration in Egypt:

• Phase 1: Before 1974, during the early phase of migration, there was political control of migration, with the state restricting the migration of skilled workers between the mid-1950s and 1967. During this phase, the government was the main employer of labour. With the growing population rate, the country experienced full employment, unsettling the government's position as main employer of labour. This forced the government to relax its emigration policy.
• Phase 2: This phase (the expansion phase, 1974-1984) was triggered by the oil embargo imposed by the Arab members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) against the United States, which resulted in ambitious development programmes in the Arab nations and increased the demand of Egyptian labour – mostly in Iraq (ibid)
• Phase 3: This phase (the contraction phase, 1984-1987) was triggered by the Iran-Iraq war, which reduced oil revenue and adversely affected the demand for Egyptian labour (ibid)
• Phase 4: This phase (deterioration phase, 1988-1992) was characterised by return migration from the Gulf area, and by massive migration flows to Egypt as a result of conflict and political instability in Sudan and other parts of sub-Saharan Africa (ibid)
• Currently:  The flow of Egyptian migrants to the Middle East and other parts of Africa, Europe, North America, and Australia is increasing.

Egypt has the most densely settled population in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) (UNICEF, n.d). Due to its centrality in the MENA region, Egypt is a country of origin, destination, and transit for migrants. Egypt has been hosting refugees primarily from Syria and South Sudan. Most North Africans consider Egypt as a migrant-transit country and therefore as a migration route via the Mediterranean to Europe.

MIGRATION POLICIES

Several laws deal with migration-related issues in Egypt. For example, Law No. 140 of 2019 amending Law No. 89 of 1960 deals with the entry and residency of foreigners in Egypt while Law No. 26 of 1975 deals with Egyptian nationality (Migration Policies in the Arab Region, 2022). Law No. 73 of 2018 establishes “deposit residency” which grants foreigners who deposit a minimum of 7 million Egyptian pounds in a local Egyptian bank a five-year residency permit and the opportunity to apply for Egyptian citizenship. Law No. 76 of 2016 amends Law No. 231 of 1996 regarding Egyptians who intend to work abroad and imposes fees on permits for highly skilled Egyptian emigrants. Egypt adopted Law No. 82 of 2016 on combating illegal migration and smuggling of migrants to complement Law No. 64 of 2010 on combating human trafficking. These laws have been crafted to put an end to human trafficking and protect the rights of victims, including their right to livelihoods, humane treatment, and mental and physical well-being.

Egypt is a member of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), whose main objective is to attain economic prosperity through regional integration by way of trade and the development of natural and human resources for the mutual benefit of all people in the region. Egypt is a signatory to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol, and the 1969 AU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa. The country is also a signatory to the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air, the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families.

GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS

In Egypt, the following government entities are in charge of migration-related matters:

• The Ministry of State for Emigration and Egyptian Expatriates Affairs (MoSEEA), which engages with Egyptian expatriates.
• The National Coordinating Committee for the Combating and Preventing of Illegal Migration and Trafficking in Persons (NCCPIM&TIP), which oversees the coordination of policies, plans, and programmes to combat and prevent illegal migration and trafficking.
• Migration Data Analysis in the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS), which enhances the acquisition of accurate migration data.
• The Migration Affairs Inter-Ministerial Committee, which ensures policy coherence and the effective implementation of the national strategy to realise long-term sustainable development gains for migrants, refugees, asylum seekers, and their host communities.
• The Migration Research Unit at Cairo University, which generates knowledge on migration, mobility, human development, and policies.
• The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), which provides asylum-related services at the request and on behalf of the government of Egypt. These activities include the reception, registration and documentation of refugees, and refugee status determination (UNHCR, 2022).

INTERNAL MIGRATION

Like elsewhere on the African continent, internal migration in Egypt is influenced by the expected gains in the migration process in relation to the cost of migration. Factors such as the economy, the environment and the political climate drive internal migration in Egypt. According to Hatab and his fellow researchers (2022), by 2017, there were an estimated 8 million internal migrants in Egypt. By 2019, Egypt’s population had doubled to over 100 million people, with 57% of the population living in rural areas (David et al., 2020).

At 8% compared to a world average of 15%, Egypt has one of the lowest internal migration rates in the world (David et al., 2020). Urbanisation, as one of the main drivers of internal migration, is therefore very low in Egypt. At 43% in 2018, Egypt had the lowest urbanisation rate among neighbouring North African countries such as Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Morocco, which stood at 70% (Elmallakh & Wahba, 2019). Rural-urban migration has remained very low and witnessed a decline over time. For example, it stood at 2.6% from 1998 to 2006, at 1.7% from 2006 to 2012, and at 1.2% from 2012 to 2018 (David et al., 2020). Urban-rural migration also declined steadily during the same period from 2.4% to 1.3% and 0.9%, respectively (ibid). Though a quarter of the population in Egypt live in Cairo (the capital city), except for Alexandra and Canal Cities, and Rural Upper Egypt, which experienced 15% and 16% in-migration and 7% and 24% out-migration respectively, the patterns of internal mobility between regions were stable in 2018 (ibid). This analysis indicates different internal migration patterns in Egypt: rural-urban, urban-urban, urban-rural, and rural-rural.

INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS, CONFLICT AND DISASTERS

Conflict/violence and disaster are the main drivers of internal displacement in Egypt. According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, by the end of 2020, there were an estimated 3,200 conflict and violence-related internal displacements and eight disaster-related displacements in Egypt (IDMC, 2024). Conflict-associated displacements are mainly caused by the activities of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) while disaster-related displacements are caused by dry mass movement, wildfires, floods, and storms. Other forms of displacement in Egypt include forceful evictions.

The statistics above clearly highlight conflict/violence as the main source of displacement in the country by the end of 2020. Infrastructural development, which is part of the development agenda of the current regime, has led to the demolition of unauthorised buildings in urban areas, displacing thousands of people. For example, activists and residents estimate that the government's plan to expand the Suez Canal port in North Sinai will affect 21,000 residents. The government put the number of those to be affected at 4,000 (Naguib, 2023).

IMMIGRATION

Before 1950, Egypt was mainly recognised as an immigration country and not as an emigration country. Although more Egyptians are currently emigrating, the country’s position as an immigration destination has not changed. In addition to its investment opportunities, the country is also an attractive destination for visitors. Over the past two decades, the number of international migrants residing in Egypt has increased considerably.

According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the number of international migrants residing in Egypt stood at 323,200 in 2010, 499,300 in 2015, 602,500 in 2020, and 1.1 million in 2024, almost triple the 2010 figure (UN DESA, 2025). The top five countries of immigrants in Egypt are Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Somalia, South Sudan, and China (ibid). International migrants in Egypt play an essential role in the development of the economy. For example, there are 30,000 Syrian registered investors in Egypt with a total investment of about US$1 billion (Daily News, 2022). These investments create job opportunities for thousands of Egyptians.

FEMALE MIGRATION

The share of the international female migration stock in Egypt increased steadily over the past two decades. According to UN DESA (2025), in 2010, there were an estimated 146,500 female international migrants in Egypt. These migrants increased to 230,500 in 2015, 279,700 in 2020, and 536,800 in 2024, representing 43.3% (2010), 46.2% (2015), 46.4% (2020), and 47.1%, respectively, of the share of the international migration stock. Despite the discrimination and exploitation that migrant women are exposed to in Egypt (also see section on labour migration), the law facilitates the integration process of female migrants through marriage to Egyptian citizens.

According to Kandiel (2011), based on the nationality rule in Egypt, it is difficult, if not impossible, for foreign nationals to acquire Egyptian nationality unless through marriage, and the process is expedited with women. However, Law No. 173 of 2018, ratified by the president (Abdel Fattah El-Sisi), paved the way for Egyptian nationality to be obtained through investment, for example by making a non-refundable donation of $250,000, investing at least a $500,000, or making a bank deposit of at least $750,000 (Malek, 2021). While it might be financially daunting to obtain citizenship through the investment route, nationality linked to marriage only creates a way for desperate migrants to arrange marriages in order to obtain citizenship. Hence, fake marriages are used as the gateway to citizenship.

 MINORS

While there is a strong presence of children among the migrant population in Egypt, there is a growing number of unaccompanied and separated Egyptian children who are leaving the country. According to UN DESA (2025), of the 602,500 international migrants in Egypt in 2020, 16.7% (100,618) were children aged 18 years or younger. The UNHCR (2023a) noted that of the 291,578 refugees and asylum seekers in Egypt, 37% (107,884) were children. Shokr and Salama (2018) found that, because of hardship, poverty, and unemployment, Egyptian children are leaving the country via the Mediterranean in search of better opportunities elsewhere, like in Europe. The percentage of unaccompanied child Egyptian migrants stood at 28% of the total migration stock in 2011. This percentage went up to 49% in 2014 and to a staggering 66% in 2016 (ibid). According to the International Organization for Migration, as cited by Shokr and Salama (2018), Egypt is one of the largest contributing countries for unaccompanied child migrants. The deteriorating economic conditions in Egypt, which has spiked the cost of essential goods and services, also negatively affects child migrants living in the country. Child migrants in Egypt also encounter challenges such as discrimination, harassment, vulnerability to sexual abuse, language barriers (especially for non-Arabic speaking child migrants), and deportation (UNICEF, n.d). Because of the country’s economic challenges, children use migration as a survival mechanism.

REFUGEES AND ASYLUM SEEKERS

The strategic geographical location of Egypt makes it a key player in humanitarian crises in the MENA region. As such, the country has a long history of being both a transit and destination country for forcibly displaced persons and children on the move. In March 2025, Egypt hosted 941,625 refugees and asylum seekers from several countries, with more than half of them from Sudan (UNHCR, 2025). Refugees and asylum seekers in Egypt are therefore mostly from Sudan (672,930), Syria (139,384), and various other countries (129,311) (UNHCR, 2025). Egypt does not have an encampment policy. In 2023, most refugees and asylum seekers were located in the urban areas of Greater Cairo and on the North Coast – for example, Giza (104,202), Cairo (101,501), Alexandra (24,902), and Kalyoubia (22,519) (UNHCR, 2023a). There are more female than male refugees and asylum seekers in Egypt (53.31% females and 46.69% males) (ibid).

The challenges confronting refugees and asylum seekers in Egypt include inadequate accommodation (forcing them to live in overcrowded neighbourhoods), language barriers, harassment, and discrimination (especially against refugees from Africa) (European Commission, 2022). A vulnerability assessment conducted by the UNHCR before the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic indicated that eight out of ten refugees in Egypt were unable to meet their basic needs (UNHCR, 2020). These challenges were compounded by the outbreak of COVID-19, as most refugees and asylum seekers lost their source of livelihood. According to the European Commission (2022), 84% of refugees and asylum seekers in Egypt live below the poverty line. Although the UNHCR, in partnership with the government, provides protection and other services (including registration, documentation, and access to education and health care) to refugees and asylum seekers in several areas, there is a need for durable solutions that will empower refugees and asylum seekers to provide for themselves and meet their needs.

EMIGRATION

Until the mid-1950s, emigration was unpopular in Egypt as most Egyptians preferred to stay in the country (Zohry, 2003). This situation changed recently as Egypt is now considered the largest migrant-sending country within the Middle East (oil-producing countries) and North Africa (MENA) region (Elmallakh & Wahba, 2019). Egyptians have become very mobile. In 2018, almost 9% of working-age Egyptians had an international migration experience while 11% of all Egyptian households had a migrant member (David et al., 2020). Second- and third-generation Egyptians have created vibrant diaspora communities in Europe, North America, and Australia. In 2018, international migration in Egypt represented 2% of all individuals aged 15 to 59, while returnees represented 7% (ibid). Emigration in Egypt is male-dominant, with almost 98% of all emigrants being male.

With decreasing oil prices and the decline of the Libyan economy, which attracted significant numbers of unskilled migrants from Egypt, it is currently mostly educated Egyptians who emigrate. For example, despite the shortage of physicians in Egypt, with a physician-patient ratio of 1:12,285, almost 90% of medical students indicated their desire to leave the country upon the completion of their studies (Kabbash et al., 2021).

According to UN DESA (2025), the number of international migrants in the country increased steadily and stood at 3.2 million in 2010, 4.2 million in 2015, 4.5 million in 2020, and 4.8 million in 2024. The top five destination countries for Egyptian migrants are Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, the United States of America, and Qatar (Statista, 2022).This analysis indicates that the lack of economic opportunities is a vital push force in the migration determination process. Hence, the search for better opportunities remains one of the key drivers of emigration.

LABOUR MIGRATION

In Egypt, because of the high levels of poverty and unemployment, the government has put a general restriction on the hiring of foreign labour, particularly for secondary jobs. According to the International Labour Organization (2021), the legal framework in Egypt (Law 12 of 2003) regulates migrant labour on four conditions: (1) reciprocity, which requires the migrant’s state to allow the employment of Egyptians; (2) only those with work visas are allowed to work; (3) foreigners are required to obtain work licenses to be able to work; and (4) the number of foreign labourers should not exceed the legal limits placed by the Ministry of Labour. Also, the Law (Law No. 91 of 1952) prohibited foreigners from obtaining work permits if there was a qualified Egyptian for such a position, and within certain professions, there was an outright ban on foreign employment. For example, in 1984, the Ministry of Labour and Immigration issued a decree prohibiting foreign maids from entering Egypt (Jureidini, 2016).

As a result of these stringent conditions, foreign nationals mostly worked in economic sectors that do not offer legal protection to the labour force. This typically included female migrants in the agricultural sector who are subjected to exploitation and poor working conditions (Elwarraky, 2018). Recently, however, the government's positive approach towards migrants and their economic contribution to the country has become a pull factor for migrants. The political rhetoric of the government that validates the contribution of migrants to the economy is plausible as it paves the way for social cohesion, facilitating the integration process of migrants within the Egyptian economy and society at large.

HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Egypt is a Tier 2 country as it does not entirely meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking despite efforts to do so. One of the key drivers of human trafficking in Egypt is poverty, and Egypt is a transit route to Europe for irregular migrants from the Horn of Africa. To supplement their income, family members, including parents, husbands, and siblings, subject women, girls, and children to sex trafficking and begging on the streets of Cairo, Giza, Alexandria, and Europe (US Department of State, 2024). Child sex tourism occurs primarily in Cairo, Alexandria, and Luxor (Borgen Project, 2021). In some cases, family members rape women and girls to coerce them into prostitution. With the complicity of their parents and assistance from marriage brokers, some people from the Arabian Gulf, including Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, purchase Egyptian women and girls for “temporary” or “summer marriages” for commercial sex, sex trafficking, and forced labour (US Department of State, 2024). Foreign domestic workers from Bangladesh, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, and Sri Lanka, not covered under Egyptian labour law, are vulnerable to labour and sexual exploitation (ibid). Unaccompanied migrants and irregular migrants from Africa en route to Europe are increasingly at risk of human trafficking in Egypt.

In 2023, the government initiated 89 new investigations involving 229 suspects in alleged sex and labour trafficking crimes, initiated the prosecution of 194 alleged traffickers (56 for sex trafficking, 77 for labour trafficking, and 61 for unspecified forms of trafficking) and obtained convictions for 84 traffickers (14 for sex trafficking, 35 for labour trafficking, and 33 for unspecified forms of trafficking) in 28 cases (ibid). Sex trafficking and labour trafficking constitute the highest forms of human trafficking in Egypt.

The government reported identifying 217 victims, with five being non-nationals, and assisted 151 children with referrals to shelters and services that included psychological support, but did not specify the kind of assistance it provided to elders (ibid). In cooperation with the Ministry of Social Solidarity (MOSS), the National Council for Childhood and Motherhood (NCCM), an NGO, an international organisation, and a foreign government, the National Coordinating Committee for the Combating and Preventing of Illegal Migration (NCCPIM) and Trafficking in Person (TIP) established a specialised shelter in Cairo staffed with female psychologists, social workers, and medical staff that could accommodate 30 women and girls. However, victims from other nationalities were prevented from accessing the shelter (US Department of State, 2021).

Although most of the victims of human trafficking were Egyptians, preventing non-national victims from accessing relief services exacerbates their trauma and increase their vulnerability. It is important to note that, unlike in other parts of the continent (for example, South Africa) where human trafficking perpetrators and their victims are mostly immigrants, in Egypt, the perpetrators and the victims are mostly Egyptians. 

REMITTANCES

Egypt has an estimated population of over 100 million people and an unemployment rate of 7.2% and 7.4% as reported during the second and third quarters of 2022 – indicating a total of 2.25 million unemployed people (Middle East Monitor, 2022). Hence, remittances constitute an important source of income as it contributes to economic growth and poverty reduction in the country. Although remittances positively affect household consumption and the financial development sector in Egypt, Sharaf and Shahen (2022) found that once these remittances reach a threshold of GDP, they hurt financial development.

According to the World Bank (2025), personal remittance flow in Egypt increased steadily from US$18.59 billion in 2016 to US$24.74 billion in 2017, US$25.52 billion in 2018, US$26.78 billion in 2019, US$29.6 billion in 2020, and US$31.49 billion in 2021. It dropped to US$28.33 billion in 2022 and to US$19.53 billion in 2023. According to Zawya (2022), Egypt is ranked the top recipient of remittances in the Middle East and fifth in the world. Hassan (2023) found that the government plays a key role in creating an enabling environment that encourages and sustains the flow of remittances, for example by reducing the cost of remittance services and establishing a remittance centre through the Central Bank of Egypt. By facilitating and enhancing the flow of remittances in the country, the government contributes to reducing household poverty.

RETURNS AND RETURNEES

One of the pull factors of emigration from Egypt was the availability of job opportunities given to Egyptians in the Gulf oil-producing countries. However, recent policy changes in some of these countries do not favour expatriates. For example, the nationalisation drive in Kuwait, which seeks to achieve a job ratio of 70:30, means that many Egyptian expatriates will have to return home (Mahyou, 2023). According to the Middle East Eye (Mahyou, 2023), in 2017, more than 30,000 Egyptians were advised to leave Saudi Arabia, and in 2019, a total of 2,000 Egyptians were ordered to leave Kuwait, making so many Egyptians feel unwelcome. Another contributing factor to the return of Egyptians is the political unrest and violence in neighbouring countries like Libya and Sudan. According to the Middle East Eye, thousands of migrants, most of them Egyptian, were deported from Libya to Egypt (Mahyou, 2023). However, some Egyptian migrants also return home of their own accord. Since 2011, the International Organization for Migration, through its Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration Programme (AVRR), has supported Egyptians stranded in Europe to return home and supported some of them, including unaccompanied migrant children, with skills development programmes, material, and psycho-social services, in their reintegration process (IOM, 2023).

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) are the key international organisations dealing with migration-related issues in Egypt. The UNHCR and the IOM, in partnership with other stakeholders, provide multi-sector assistance to refugees. 

• UNHCR: The refugee agency ensures that asylum seekers can apply for and gain access to protection, health care, and educational services, raising awareness and advocating for the rights of refugees. 
• IOM: This organisation is involved in various migration-related areas, including labour mobility and human development, counter-trafficking, migration governance, return and reintegration, resettlement to a third country, immigration, and border management. 
• World Food Programme: The WFP provides food assistance to refugees and asylum seekers in Egypt. 
• Save the Children: This international NGO provides quality education, and helps to improve maternal, neonatal, infant, and school children's health and nutrition. 
• United Nations Children's Fund: UNICEF, in partnership with the Ministry of Social Solidarity, provides inclusive social protection for refugees and asylum seekers.