Historical Background

Due to its political stability after independence and its strategic geographical position, Cameroon has been the destination country for many migrant people, especially during the ‘70s. Between 1970 and 1980, Cameroon registered an upward immigration trend, recording 143,611 immigrants in 1976 and 257,689 in 1987, mostly labour immigrants from neighbouring countries like Nigeria, Chad, Guinea, and the Central African Republic (Ache, 2016). However, Cameroon started experiencing an economic meltdown with the economic crisis in 1980. The situation worsened with the introduction of the Structural Adjustment Programme in 1988 by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. In a country where the government is the main employer of labour, the economic requirements of the Structural Adjustment Programme that pushed for the state to be downsized resulted in the freezing of employment opportunities and the devaluation of the currency, making living conditions in Cameroon increasingly difficult for its inhabitants. Recently, the Anglophone crisis which began in 2016 was an expression of dissatisfaction by the two Anglophone regions with regards to what they saw as their under-representation in, and cultural marginalisation by, the central government. This has undermined the already precarious state. 

Despite its cultural diversities and resource endowment, the Human Development Index (HDI) for Cameroon as of 2021 - 2022 stood at 0.576 and the country is ranked 151 out of 191 countries (United Nations Development Programme, 2023), with 37.5% of Cameroonians living below the poverty line (The World Factbook – CIA, 2022). Cameroon has a stagnant per capita income, relatively inequitable distribution of income, a top-heavy civil service, endemic corruption, and a generally unfavourable climate for business enterprise (Ibid). According to criteria adopted by Transparency International (Corruption Perception Index) in 2020, Cameroon featured among the 38 most corrupt countries in the world (Transparency, 2022). The country’s bleak socioeconomic and political situation has led to the loss of the economically active population, especially the mobile youth, which has led to a brain drain as some are experts who travel abroad in the hope of achieving a better future for themselves and their families. Many of those who leave support their extended families in Cameroon through remittances, and this has become an important factor in the country’s economy. Paradoxically, while Cameroon is considered a “safe haven” for many fleeing from the war in the Central Africa Republic and the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria, to some Cameroonians, especially those from the two Anglophone regions experiencing political tensions between pro-independence fighters and government forces, Cameroon is at war.

Migration Policies

Since becoming a UN member state in 1960, Cameroon has signed and ratified many international laws regarding refugees and asylum seekers. However, it was only in 1997 that the government promulgated the Immigration Act (No. 97/012, 10/01/1997), outlining the terms and conditions for the entry, security, transfer of funds, and return policies of foreigners. Cameroon supports the mobilization of diaspora practices and co-development projects, which aim at the return of Cameroonian skilled professionals who migrated to Europe. The Refugee Law was signed in 2005 and became effective six years later; granting protection and freedom of movement within the national borders to both refugees and asylum seekers (requiring the latter to inform the authorities whenever they are changing their addresses). In Cameroon, the UN Refugee Agency deals with claims of asylum seekers and decides on their status as refugees. Denied applicants are allowed to appeal to the UNHCR office, but Courts cannot review decisions. 

According to the Refugee Law, refugees have the right to work, own or transfer property, and be employed in almost all job fields (except in parastatal and civil service occupations). However, any contract of employment involving a foreigner must first be submitted to and approved by the Ministry of Labour. Many migrants have no alternative to informal work and set tasks. 

The same law grants refugees protection in labour, medical health (at the same conditions as nationals), and the right to education through scholarships provided by the government or funded by NGOs. 

Governmental Institutions

Three ministries oversee migration affairs in Cameroon: 

• The General Delegation of National Security oversees emigration, immigration, and border management. 
• The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the focal point for international cooperation on migration issues: it oversees relations with the Cameroonian diaspora and handles requests for legalization from foreign associations present in Cameroon.
• The Prime Minister’s Office oversees the Interministerial Technical Platform for the Management of Labour Migration (Rabat Process, 2018).   

Internal Migration

Internal migration in Cameroon is not collected consistently and reliably in official data and remains unexplored. Although there is no current publication on the specific trends of this type of migration, the current trends indicate that because of the pull factors of better opportunities in the cities, Cameroon has one of the highest rates of urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa, with 56% of the population living in urban areas (The World Bank, 2018). 

Within the context of Cameroon, two types of internal migration are common:  intraregional and interregional internal migration. Yaoundé and Douala, with their major urban conglomerates, are net receivers of intraregional internal migrants. According to Mberu & Pongou (2012), the internal migration index in Cameroon was estimated at 32.5%, making the country one of the highest in the region with an internal migration population. The extreme North, West, and North-West are the three regions with the highest number of internal migrants (Ibid). The majority (26.2%) of internal migrants come from the Western region (Abomo et al., 2013). Unequal development and poverty in rural areas, as compared with urban areas are the main drivers of internal migration in Cameroon, as the majority (90%) of those who migrate are youths below the age of 35 in search of better opportunities (Mberu & Pongou). With the imbalance of rural versus urban development rates, it is estimated by the United Nations that, by 2050, 70% of Cameroon’s population will live in urban areas (The World Bank, 2018). Douala has the greatest competitive edge (in terms of the level of the concentration of industries) with employment in 31 different industries. This can be compared with cities like Yaounde, Bafousam, Ngaoundere, Maroua, Bamenda, and Kumba, which have competitive edges of between 7-13 different industries (Ibid). It is argued that, within Cameroon, internal migration improves the living conditions of migrants, leading to the emergence of an informal economy sector, which is a supplier of jobs, thus dominating the national economy of Cameroon.  

Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), Conflict and Disasters

As of May 2022, there were over 1.1 million internally displaced persons in Cameroon because of conflict or violence and disaster, making it the second largest host country of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the region (IDMC, 2022). Some of the challenges that confront IDPs in Cameroon include access to education, nutrition, and accommodation. Some of the IDPs are in camps, while others are settled in communities that have shown hospitality and solidarity (Fomekong, 2021). 

2,120,560 Internally Displaced Persons in Cameroon (2024)

Conflict and violence are the main drivers of internal displacement in Cameroon. As a result of the Boko Haram insurgency in the far northern region and the current “Anglophone crisis” in the North West and South West regions of Cameroon, there is a growing number of conflict-related displacements in the country, except for in 2021, when there was a slight decrease as shown in the graph below. 

A peak in displacement occurred during 2020, with a slight decrease in the following year.

Annual conflict-related displacement according to IDMC, 2022

Natural disasters, like landslides and floods, contribute to internal displacement in Cameroon. For example, landslides in Kupe-muanenguba and Nguti in the South West region displaced 21,200 people in 2020, while floods displaced 4,400 people in Douala in 2020 and 1,800 people in the Far North region in 2021 (Ibid).   

Immigration

Cameroon, commonly referred to as “Africa in miniature” due to its cultural diversities and resource endowment (wood, cotton, refined petroleum oils, unwrought aluminium, etc.), remains an attractive destination for immigrants worldwide and within the region. According to the World Bank, as cited by Macrotrends (2021), Cameroon has experienced a steady increase in its international migration flow from 2000 – 2015. In 2005, the stock of international migration in Cameroon was 258,737, a 13.29% increase from 2000. It went up to 289,091 in 2010, an 11.73% increase from 2005, and in 2015, it stood at 381,984, a 32.13% increase from 2010, with international migrants constituting 1.64% of the total population (Ibid). Recently, the trend continues to increase as reflected in the UN DESA (2020) international migration stock, as cited by the Migration Data Portal (2020), which indicates that the total number of international migrants at mid-year 2020 in Cameroon stood at 579,200, constituting 2.2% of the total population. Although there is no recent specific information on the origin countries of immigrants in Cameroon, UNICEF (2013) suggests that the top origin countries of immigrants in Cameroon were Nigeria, Chad, and France.  

Gender/Female Migration 

There is a paucity of information about female immigrants in Cameroon. However, according to UN DESA (2020), as cited by the Migration Data Portal (2020), of the 579,200 immigrants in Cameroon in mid-year 2020, 48.1% were female. Most of the female migrant population group in Cameroon are circular migrants, mostly from neighbouring countries like Nigeria, who are involved in cross-border trading. However, in attempting to conduct their small-scale informal businesses in the country, these migrant women are subjected to several challenges like stigmatization, violence, and harassment. In response, the government assists migrant women in Cameroon with valuable information and services that support their businesses (UN WOMEN, 2010).

Minors

According to UN DESA (2020), as cited by the Migration Data Portal (2021), of the 579,200 immigrants in Cameroon in mid-year 2020, 39.6% were children. Most of the child migrants in Cameroon are victims of the protracted political instability in the Central African Republic (CAR) and the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria that have seen thousands of child migrants, some of them unaccompanied, moving into Cameroon, particularly in the Far North Province of the country. These child migrants are subjected to several challenges, including access to education, nutrition, and accommodation. The absence of these necessities has prompted humanitarian organizations to step in to assist these vulnerable children. For example, UNICEF provided interim and follow-up care to 1,143 and 527 unaccompanied and separated children from Nigeria and CAR, respectively (UNICEF, 2017).

The ongoing Anglophone armed conflict, also known as the Anglophone Crisis or Cameroonian Civil War, in the North West and South West regions of Cameroon, has led to the closure of several schools. For example, two in every three schools were closed in 2022 in the affected regions, compounding the already precarious situation of child migration in the country (International Crisis Group, 2022). According to UNICEF (2019), of the 855,000 children left out of school because of the armed conflict in the regions, 150,000 are displaced.  

From a legal point of view, Cameroon has thus far signed and ratified the most important international laws and protocols regarding children’s rights: the 1990 Child Rights Convention and the 2004 UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. In 2011, the government also promulgated a national law against child trafficking (024/2011). As far as migrant children are concerned, the Immigration Act (006/2005) gives any refugee’s child the status of refugee, favours family reunifications, and in the case of unaccompanied children, grants them the status of refugees. According to Cameroonian law, children have the right to education, health care, and naturalization and must be protected from child marriages, as well as from any form of exploitation.  

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

Cameroon has a long history of providing refuge to asylum seekers and refugees in the Central African Region. In principle, Cameroon is a conducive host for refugees. Cameroon is ranked 7th in Africa and 13th in the world among the largest host countries (World Bank, 2018). According to UNHCR (2023a), as of March 2023, Cameroon was host to 479,805 refugees and 9,212 asylum seekers. More than half (349,290) of refugees and asylum seekers in Cameroon come from the Central African Republic, 127,919 come from Nigeria, and the rest are from Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Sudan, Burundi, Congo, and Cote d’Ivoire (Ibid). The refugees from CAR are predominantly located in the Eastern region of Cameroon, while those from Nigeria are predominantly located in the Far North region of the country (UNHCR, 2023b). The majority of the Nigerian refugees in the Far North are victims of the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria, while the refugees in the Eastern region are victims of political and sectarian violence that has engulfed the Central African Republic since 2013. While a substantial number of refugees live within the border regions of their host communities, some live in refugee camps, and others live in urban cities like Yaoundé and Douala (UNHCR, 2020). Some of the refugee camps in Cameroon include the Lolo, Gado-Badzere, Ngam, and the Minawao refugee camps. Refugees living in the camps are provided with psychosocial support and business training for self-sustenance.

Emigration

The adverse effects of the economic crisis of 1980 – 2000, the implementation of the Structural Adjustment programme by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the devaluation of the Cameroonian currency (Francs CFA) made emigration in search for economic opportunities (greener pastures) an attractive venture to many Cameroonians. In the Anglophone regions of Cameroon, the movement is commonly referred to as “bushfalling” which metaphorically means someone who goes into the bush/forest to hunt and bring home food, while in the French regions, it is commonly referred to as “aller en adventure a mbeng” which loosely translated means to go for adventure to the North (Nyamnjoh, 2011).

In 2013, the United Nations (nd) recorded a total of 251,527 emigrants from Cameroon who were residing in France (78,561), the United States of America (48,952), Gabon (48,255), Nigeria (48,162), and Chad (27,597). In 2020, the figures had almost doubled, as according to UN DESA (2020), as cited by the Migration Data Portal (2021), at mid-year 2020, there were an estimated 441 thousand emigrants from Cameroon. The increase in the number of emigrants is a clear indication of the increasing desire of most Cameroonians to leave the country. It is important to note that high-skill professionals, for example, engineers, teachers, doctors, as well as high-performing students, constitute a reasonable percentage of those who emigrate. According to Tande (2006), as cited by Ache (2016), 25 – 30% of experts trained in Cameroon migrate, while 70 – 80% of Cameroonians trained abroad do not return to their country of origin. Ache (2016:36) further states that the Ministry of Health reported that 5,000 Cameroonian-trained medical doctors were living abroad and only 4200 still resident in the country. 

Labour Migration/Brain Drain

Cameroon is a member state of the Communauté Economique et Monétaire de l’Afrique Centrale (CEMAC), which is a regional body that has ratified the free movement agreement. This means there is a free visa policy that allows nationals of their member states to move within their national borders. This initiative, finalized in 2017 by all member states, has facilitated the movement of labour migrants within the regional block. According to Nguindip (2018), immigrant labour constitutes 10% of the workforce in Cameroon, Chad, and Gabon. Most immigrants concentrate in dirty, dangerous, and demeaning (3D) jobs where protection is often inadequate or absent. Although the law grants equality with nationals, in terms of the treatment of migrant labourers, depending on their skills and profession, this is not true in practice as labour migrants face a variety of employment restrictions. While unskilled migrants, especially undocumented migrants, are subjected to exploitation and violation of their rights, professional and skilled migrants, on the other hand, are protected by migration policies (Ibid).

Unauthorised Migration/Trafficking and Smuggling   

Cameroon is ranked a tier 2 country in the Trafficking in Person (2022) TIP Report as the government of Cameroon does not meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking, although it has made some significant efforts. Cameroon is still a source, a place for transit, and a destination for children subjected to forced labour and sex trafficking. Even though pandemic-related border closures have reduced the number of trafficked victims abroad, the economic impact of the pandemic combined with the ongoing crisis in the North West and South West regions have contributed to a sharp increase in the number of victims exploited domestically (Trafficking in Person Report, 2023). The five years of school closure in the regions have resulted in parents sending their children to intermediaries who exploit them for domestic servitude and sex work rather than sending them to school. Criminals coerce women, IDPs, homeless children, and orphans into sex trafficking and forced labour. Traffickers force children to work in artisanal gold mining, gravel quarries, fishing and animal breeding ventures, to work in restaurants, and to beg on the streets (Trafficking in Person Report, 2022).  

Foreign business owners and herders forced children from neighbouring countries including Benin, CAR, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, and Nigeria, to work in spare parts shops or as cattle herders (Ibid). During the reporting year (2023), the government investigated 44 cases (4 for sex trafficking, 30 for labour trafficking, and 10 for unspecified forms of trafficking), initiated the prosecution of 19 alleged traffickers, and obtained convictions for three traffickers (Trafficking in Person Report, 2023). Through the Ministry of Social Development (MINAS), the government assisted 32 trafficking victims with shelter, basic needs, psychosocial support, health care, and family reunification in its centres in Yaounde, Douala, and Betamba (Ibid). In 2019, the government provided 2,864 information sessions to help prevent human trafficking, which reached 397,447 people compared to only 69,000 in 2018 (The Borgen Project, 2021).

Remittances

According to the World Bank (2021), remittance flow in Cameroon experienced a steady increase from 2015, when it stood at $241,706,990 to $355,550,646 in 2019. There was a slide decrease in 2020, when it dropped to $334,097,289, and a sharp increase in 2021 when it increased to $430,097,112. Although remittance flow as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Cameroon (0.9%) is not as colossal as in other countries in the continent, for example, Comoros (10%), Senegal (8.4%), Togo (6%), and Ghana (7%), remittance flow in Cameroon contributes to poverty reduction. The transfers enable thousands of households to access necessities like healthcare services, education, housing and food supplies (Sangu, 2022 & African Media Agency, 2022). One of the challenges that remitters face is the cost of transactions, often arising because of inadequate financial institutions, particularly in rural communities. 

 Returns and returnees

Under the joint EU-IOM initiative for Migrant Protection and Reintegration programme, more than 5,450 Cameroonian migrants have been assisted with their return and reintegration process within their home communities from 2017 to 2021 (IOM, 2021). Their reintegration process is complex and challenging: from accessing documentation to establishing a proposed business project approved and supported by the joint EU-IOM initiative. According to the United Nations (2022), because of the high cost of hosting returnees in hotels, the government, in collaboration with IOM, has provided a transit centre in Yaoundé that can accommodate 45 returnees for 72 hours or at most one month for those whose communities are not yet conducive for their return (United Nations, 2022). In the transit centre, returnees are provided with psychosocial support activities. The current Anglophone crisis in the North West and South West regions, characterized by the destruction of properties and sources of livelihoods, has created a lot of uncertainties among returnees, making their reintegration process in some cases unattainable. It is important to note that there are independent returnees who are not supported by the government or any non-governmental organization.

International and civil society organizations

The most important international organisation dealing with migration-related concerns in Cameroon is the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, which coordinates, protects, and provides assistance to persons of concern in collaboration with the government and its partners. The UNHCR implementing partners in Cameroon include the International Medical Corps, which works in refugee camps implementing health programmes that include disease surveillance, nutrition activities, gender-based violence response, mental health and psychosocial support, and child protection. African Humanitarian Action provides comprehensive healthcare, nutrition, and infrastructural development services to refugees. Plan International ensures children have access to protection, quality inclusive education, health information and services, and decent work for disadvantaged community members and refugees. Other UNHCR agencies in Cameroon include the World Food Programme, which provides food assistance to communities affected by disasters, including refugees and IDPs, returnees and host communities, and the International Organisation for Migration, which provides voluntary return and reintegration programmes to stranded Cameroonians abroad and works in the areas of migration policies and research.